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Objectives: This study aimed to examine the longitudinal association between social relationships and physical functioning among community-dwelling older adults with chronic conditions. Methods: Self-reported questionnaires were distributed and collected between 2014 and 2017 from participants ≥65 years old. The Index of Social Interaction was used to evaluate social relationships and the instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) subscale of the Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology Index of Competence was used to examine functional status. Results: A total of 422 participants (190 males and 232 females) were included in the final analysis. High social relationships demonstrated significant adverse effects (odds ratio [OR] = 0.77, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.64–0.93) on the decline of IADL in the overall sample, particularly for females (OR = 0.71, 95% CI: 0.55–0.93) but not as much for males (P = 0.131). Conclusion: This finding suggests that functional limitation was influenced by social relationships among disabled older adults and the influence of social relationships on functional limitation differed based on gender. Keywords: Interpersonal Relations; Functional Status; Gender; Aged; Chronic Disease; Longitudinal Studies; Health Behaviour; Japan.

Objectives: This study aimed to examine the long-term effects of parenting practice during preschool years on children’s movement performance in primary school. Methods: This three-year longitudinal study included 225 children aged 3–6-years-old. Parents reported baseline parenting practice and evaluated children’s movement performance three years later. Latent class analysis was used to explore latent classes of movement performance. A post hoc test was used to identify the characteristics of different patterns. Finally, adjusted multinomial logistic regression models were used to test the influence of parenting practice on identified patterns of movement performance. Results: Children in this study were grouped into three movement performance patterns, labelled as ‘least difficulties’ (n = 131, 58.2%), ‘low back pain’ (n = 68, 30.2%) and ‘most difficulties’ (n = 26, 11.6%). After controlling for age, gender, having siblings or not, family structure, standardised body mass index, sleep condition and dietary habits, the researchers found that if parents played games with children frequently, the children would have a 0.287 times lower probability of being in the ‘low back pain’ class (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.105–0.783). In addition, if parents take children to meet peers of a similar age frequently, children would have a 0.339 times lower probability of being in ‘most difficulties’ class (95% CI: 0.139–0.825). Conclusion: Primary healthcare providers should pay careful attention to children with movement difficulties. The study provides longitudinal evidence to support the applicability of positive parenting practice in early childhood to prevent children’s movement difficulties. Keywords: Movement; Parenting; Latent Class Analysis; Child; Longitudinal Study; Japan.

Objectives This study aimed to explore the bidirectional association between frailty and social relationships in older adults while distinguishing between interpersonal and intrapersonal effects. Methods A prospective cohort study of community-dwelling older adults was conducted in Japan in three waves spanning six years with follow-ups in every three years. Random intercept cross-lagged panel model was used to explore temporal associations between frailty and social relationships. Results Data for 520 participants (mean age 73.02 [SD 6.38] years, 56.7% women) were analyzed. Across individuals, frailty was associated with social relationships (β = -0.514, p

Self-care ability and social skills are potential areas of difficulty for preschool children. However, values about young children's self-care ability are different worldwide. This longitudinal study examined the influence of early self-care ability on social skills at the end of the preschool years. Participants were 509 children recruited from kindergartens and child care centers across Japan, whose self-care ability and social skills were assessed at baseline year and three years later (Age of children in 2015 at baseline: M = 35 months, SD = 6.1 months). The study found that gender was significantly associated with social skills, while preschool facility entrance age was only associated with assertion skills. After controlling gender and entrance age, early self-care ability was still positively related to later assertion and cooperation (Assertion: OR = 2.55, 95% CI = 1.00–6.51; Cooperation: OR = 3.15, 95% CI = 1.23–8.07). Implications of the findings are discussed in the context of cultural diversity, highlighting the importance of cultivating children's age-appropriate self-care ability based on daily observations and evaluations.

Social relationships are associated with physical function. However, little scholarly attention has been focused on the effect of changing social factors on physical function.This study was designed to examine the effects on physical function of changes in social relationships in adults aged 65 years and older.This study is part of a longitudinal, prospective cohort study that was conducted on community-dwelling older adults in a suburban area of central Japan. Baseline self-report data were collected in 2011, and a follow-up survey was conducted in 2017. Social relationships were assessed using the Index of Social Interaction, and physical function was evaluated using a subscale of the Kihon Checklist. Chi-square tests, Mann-Whitney U tests, and multiple logistic regression analysis were used to analyze data from 442 older adults who were functionally independent at baseline.After controlling for covariates in 2011, negative changes in social relationships (odds ratio [ OR ] = 3.20, 95% CI [1.18, 8.69]) were found to be associated with physical function decline. Moreover, 1-point increases in the different social-relationship values between baseline and follow-up were associated with protective effects against functional decline ( OR = 0.71, 95% CI [0.63, 0.80]). Furthermore, median trends between baseline and follow-up revealed associations between decreasing ( OR = 4.18, 95% CI [1.53, 11.39]) and continuously low ( OR = 2.98, 95% CI [1.42, 6.28]) social relationships and physical function decline.The findings support a strong association between negative changes in social relationships and physical function decline and highlight the importance of promoting social relationships to delay physical function decline in older adults.

What is Empowerment? Empowerment is to give people dreams and hopes, encourage them, and bring out the wonderful power of life that they originally have. Everyone is born with great power. And you can continue to exert great power throughout your life. Empowerment is to bring out that wonderful power. Just as gushing out from the spring, it is critical to bring out the vitality and potential of each person. In practices such as psychology, health, medical care, welfare, education, administration, management, and community development, the wonderful potential that each person originally has is brought up and manifested, and through activities, can create positive change for the development of people's lives and society. We will make use of it. In addition, in groups such as organizations and communities, the vitality and abilities hidden in each person are effectively drawn out, and this power is used as energy to support the growth of people and the development of the community. This is the empowerment required of organizations, communities, and people.

The diversity of child social skills development is not well detected among Asian countries. Culturally validated assessments are needed for practitioners to evaluate child social skills. This study tested the measurement invariance of the Social Skill Scale (SSS) across Japanese and Chinese samples and explored country differences in child social skills development. The SSS utilizes a widely used factor structure (assertion, self-control, and cooperation subdomains) and has established Japanese and Chinese versions. We conducted investigations with an identical process and materials with different language versions, collecting data from 931 Japanese kindergarten children (M

Strong relationship exists between loneliness and depression in older adults. However, the effect of multifaceted social relationships on the relationship between loneliness and depression has not been explored. The purpose of the current study was to find out how multifaceted social relationships affect the aforementioned processes. We investigated and evaluated the loneliness status, depression symptoms, social relationships, and demographic information of 1116 older adults aged ≥65 years living in rural Japan. The final 555 participants were included in the analysis. Statistical evidence showed a direct effect between loneliness and depression symptoms. Additionally, the mediation model found that social curiosity and participation acted as mediators between loneliness and depression symptoms. Further, independence and participation, independence, and feeling safe played a conditional moderating role in the model of loneliness–social curiosity–depression symptoms and loneliness–participation–depression symptoms, respectively. Interaction can be an individual moderator in the link between loneliness and depression symptoms without any mediator. The moderated mediation model suggests that social curiosity and participation could mediate the association between loneliness and depression symptoms. In this process, independence, participation, and feeling safe may act as moderators.

Background Social relationships may be the key to successful aging among older adults. However, little is known about the variability of social relationships among community-dwelling older people. This study aimed to describe the patterns of social relationships and examine the differences in sociodemographic characteristics and mental and physical health status among these patterns. Methods We obtained the data from a questionnaire survey in 2017 for older adults aged 65 and above who lived in a suburban area in Japan. The Index of Social Interaction (ISI) was used to evaluate social relationships. The final sample comprised 964 people who were independently mobile and answered at least one item of the ISI. To clarify the patterns of social relationships, latent class analysis was performed with five subscales of ISI treated as indicator variables. Multinomial logistic regression was conducted to examine the factors associated with the patterns of social relationships. Results The patterns of social relationships were classified into three classes: “Active” (73.6%), “Socially isolated” (14.7%), and “Less motivated” (11.7%). Persons who had depressive symptoms were more likely to be allocated to the “Socially isolated” (Odds Ratio [OR] 1.80, 95% Confidence Interval [CI] 1.13–2.86) or the “Less motivated” groups (OR 1.69, 95% CI 1.00–2.85) compared to the “Active” group. In addition, men (OR 1.72, 95% CI 1.07–2.76) and those living alone (OR 3.07, 95% CI 1.43–6.61) were more likely to be allocated to the “Socially isolated” group. Moreover, those who were dependent, according to the instrumental activities and daily living functions, were more likely to be assigned to the “Socially isolated” (OR 2.19, 95% CI 1.21–3.97) or “Less motivated” (OR 6.29, 95% CI 3.47–11.39) groups. Conclusion This study revealed the patterns of social relationships in older adults and suggested that there may be variations of social relationships among community dwellers. The results also indicated the necessity of assessing individual patterns of social relationships and devising strategies for each pattern in public health practice.

This study assesses the psychometric properties of Allen and Meyer's three-component model of organizational commitment focusing on physicians in Pakistan and explores the determinants of each form of commitment. The cross-sectional study implemented a self-reported questionnaire at a hospital in Pakistan. Data were collected from 478 permanently employed physicians. This study offers evidence for the generalizability of this model to the health sector, particularly for physicians. Age, experience, and qualification explained the higher commitment levels. This study suggests adjustments to the commitment scale for physicians. Hospital administrations should formulate effective strategies at individual levels to enhance commitment.

Objectives: Eating behaviour in early childhood serves as a foundation for future health outcomes. Diet patterns can have long-term beneficial or adverse effects on social behaviour development. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate food consumption frequency in 1- to 6-year-olds as an eating behaviour-related predictor of behaviour problems six years later. Methods: This longitudinal study involved 124 mother-child dyads from a project named ‘Community Empowerment and Care for Wellbeing and Health Longevity’ initiated in 1991 and conducting surveys every three years. We studied children aged 1–6 years in July 2011, with a follow-up assessment in August 2017. The primary exposure examined was the frequency of food items intake. The primary outcome was behaviour problems as assessed by the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Results: The adjusted results suggested that a higher intake of leafy green and light-coloured vegetables were significantly associated with decreased odds of conduct problems and prosocial behaviour problems in Japanese children. However, no associations were observed among fruits, milk, small fish, eggs, soybeans, seaweed, and any SDQ subscales. Conclusion: This study shows that eating leafy green and light-coloured vegetables may have a protective effect on a child’s conduct and prosocial behaviour problems. Due consideration should be given to children’s eating habits in the early stages of their lives, to ensure better mental health. Keywords: Child; Diet; Impulsive Behaviour; Longitudinal Studies; Mental Health; Nutrients; Sugars; Vegetables.

Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of an experiential learning program based on Kolb’s theory in increasing dementia supporters’ motivation and activity involvement within the community. Method In this interventional study, the sample was divided into two groups. The intervention group underwent dementia supporter training and participated in an experiential learning program, which was conducted two weeks after the initial training session. The control group underwent only the dementia supporter training. Results Kolb’s experiential learning model consists of four stages: concrete experience, reflective observation, conceptualization, and active experimentation. A total of 37 and 44 individuals constituted the intervention and control groups, respectively. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test revealed that there was a significant increase in motivation among the intervention group participants, when compared to the control group participants. Moreover, the activity rate was higher among the intervention group participants. Discussion The experiential learning program was effective in increasing motivation levels and activity involvement among the dementia supporters. Conclusions The experiential learning program for dementia supporters can be used to improve other volunteer and professional programs. Moreover, Kolb’s theory can be used to support individuals with dementia within the community.

Summary Background & aim Hypertension as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease has growing prevalence. An increase in body weight is typically followed by an increase in blood pressure. This study aimed to investigate the association of general and central obesity with hypertension in Indonesian women using WHO and Indonesian classification systems. Methods Cross-sectional study of Indonesian women aged 18 years or and more (313,714 participants), using national level Indonesia National Basic Health Research (2013). Results The prevalence of hypertension in Indonesian women in this study was 32.8%. Based on logistic regression analysis, hypertension was significantly associated with residential area, educational attainment, self-reported smoking status, cardiovascular disease, chronic kidney disease, diabetes mellitus, body mass index and waist circumference. Furthermore, the odds of having hypertension for general and central obesity according to WHO classification were adjusted odds ration (aOR) 2.61, 95% CI 2.52–2.70 and aOR 1.50, 95% CI 1.46–1.53. By Indonesian classification were aOR 2.21, 95% CI 2.16–2.26 and aOR 1.48, 95% CI 1.45–1.51. Conclusion By using International WHO and standard Indonesia classification systems, general and central obesity were associated with hypertension in Indonesia women. Thus, not only general obesity but also central obesity should be used to assess obesity in Indonesian women.

Social skills acquired during early childhood are often the foundation for success later in life. Using a nationwide survey dataset in Japan, this study aims to explore the multiple growth trajectories of social skills among children in kindergarten by using a latent class growth modeling approach. It also examines whether, and to what extent, the home-rearing environment at early age predict trajectories of social skills development. Children in this study were assessed on social skills at three waves, four home-rearing environment dimensions (human stimulation, social stimulation, avoidance of punishment, and social support for parenting) and demographic background were measured at wave 1. The results indicated that three distinct growth trajectories of social skills existed during kindergarten: high increase levels, moderate increase levels, and decreased levels. The avoidance of punishment and children’s gender significantly predicted the growth trajectories of social skills. Thus, the results suggest that more attention should be paid to the home-rearing environment and boys.

Background: Lack of male partners’ postpartum support can cause postpartum depression (PPD), a serious mood disorder, in women. Thus, to prevent PPD, it is important to clarify the factors influencing male partners’ postpartum support. Methods: In total, 62 male partners of postpartum women at 1 week–6 months after delivery, living in South Jakarta, were invited by assistance from community volunteers. Focus group interviews were employed; participants were grouped depending on their residences and asked about their behaviors in supporting postpartum women. Interviews were documented using two voice recorders and two video recorders. The content analysis method and Bertalanffy’s system theory of internal and external factors of health behaviors was utilized to develop units and codes. Results: The analysis identified five codes of individual-level factors: (1) knowledge; (2) belief; (3) social and life adaptation skills; (4) psychological disposition; and (5) physiological condition. Three codes of community-level factors included: (1) social support; (2) media; and (3) socio-cultural and economic. Two codes of social policy-level factors included (1) health care system and; (2) Indonesian societal laws and regulations. Conclusions: Various internal and external factors influence Indonesian male partners’ postpartum support. Different interventions for these factors might be impactful in preventing PPD.

Aim Previous studies have shown that social relationships positively contribute to the functioning of older adults. However, the particular aspects of social relationships that are most predictive remain unknown. Consequently, the current study aimed to clarify what elements of social relationships impacted the maintenance of functioning among older adults. Methods The present study used baseline data collected in 2011, and follow-up surveys were carried out 3 years later. Participants included individuals aged 65 years or older who lived in a suburban community in Japan. A total of 434 participants met inclusion criteria for the study and were included in analysis. The Index of Social Interaction measure consists of five subscales (independence, social curiosity, interaction, participation and feeling of safety), and was used to assess the multiple elements of social relationships. Results After controlling for age, sex, disease status and mobility in 2011, the results showed that the social curiosity subscale was significantly associated with functional status after 3 years (OR 1.29, 95% CI 1.02–1.63). Other Index of Social Interaction subscales were non-significant. Conclusions The current study suggests that interaction with environment and multifaceted social relationships have the strongest impact on functional ability for older adults in Japan. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2017; 17: 1522–1526.

Reduction of children's behavioral problems has the potential to ameliorate parental stress, mental health problems, and family dysfunction. The current study was designed as a 3-year longitudinal study with secondary data. A total of 99 caregivers with preschool aged children were required to complete two self-reported questionnaires: the Index of Child Care Environment and Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. It demonstrated that a positive home-rearing environment had a positive influence on children's behavioral problem 3 years’ later. Our study suggests that we may reduce behavioral problems in children's later development by providing a positive home rearing environment.

Objectives To examine the relationship between multimorbidity and functional limitation, and how social relationships alter that association. Methods This cross-sectional study used data collected by self-reported questionnaires from adults aged 65 years and older living in a rural area in Japan in 2017. This analysis included complete data from 570 residents. Multimorbidity status was defined as having two chronic diseases exist simultaneously in one individual, and the function status was measured by their long-term care needs. Social relationships were assessed by the Index of Social Interaction and divided into high and low levels. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to examine the association between social relationships and functional limitation and to assess the role of social relationships in this association. Results The logistic regression model indicated that the risk of functional limitation was higher in multimorbidity participants than free-of-multimorbidity participants (OR = 2.55, 95% CI = 1.56–4.16). Compared with participants with no multimorbidity and a high level of social relationships, low level of social relationships increased the risk of functional limitation among participants both with and without multimorbidity, with the OR = 7.71, 95% CI = 3.03–19.69 and OR = 3.28, 95% CI = 1.30–8.27, respectively. However, no significant result was found in participants with multimorbidity and a high level of social relationships (P = 0.365). Conclusions Multimorbidity was associated with functional limitations. However, this association could be increased by a low level of social relationships and decreased by a high level of social relationships.

Background Previous research has established links between corporal punishment and children's developmental problems, but few studies have investigated the moderating effect of positive parenting between corporal punishment and children's developmental difficulties in detail. This study investigated the buffering effect of parental engagement on the association between corporal punishment and children's emotional/behavioral problems. Methods The main caregivers completed the Evaluation of Environmental Stimulation Scale (EES), which is an evaluation of daily parenting behaviors, and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), which evaluates children's developmental problems. Results Corporal punishment was associated with worse emotional and behavioral problems in children, whereas parental engagement in games or sports was associated with fewer emotional symptoms. Similarly, parental engagement in homework or housework significantly moderated the association between corporal punishment and children's behavioral problems. Conclusions Parental engagement positively moderated the association between parental corporal punishment and children's developmental difficulties. This association varied with child gender.

Objectives Recently, social isolation has been reported to be a critical problem among Japanese elderly persons. However, few studies have compared social interaction in the past and the present or investigated its predictive factors. This study aimed to clarify the transitional changes in social interaction over 20 years and explore the factors related to social interaction focusing on the use of community resources.Methods The participants were community-dwelling elderly persons aged 65 years and over. A survey was conducted 8 times from 1994 to 2014 in the suburban area of Tobishima, Japan. The Index of Social Interaction Scale was used and each subscale and the total score were calculated. Subsequently, the 2014 scores were compared with the 1994 scores using the Wilcoxon rank sum test. Logistic regression analysis was conducted to clarify the factors related to social interaction, focusing on the association between the use of community resources (local elderly management center, health care center, health promotion facility, library) in 2011 and social interaction 3 years later. Age, gender, disease, and mobility were also entered into the model as control variables.Results Comparing social interaction in 1994 and 2014, total scores were found to have significantly increased in all age groups. Independence scores significantly increased in the overall group and in females aged 75-84. Curiosity scores also increased in both males and females. These results show that social interaction has increased over 2 decades. In addition, the use of local elderly management and health care centers, and health promotion facilities was associated with total social interaction scores 3 years later.Conclusion The current study clarified changes in social interaction, both comprehensively and for each of its aspects, among community-dwelling elderly adults. Increasing social isolation has been reported in recent years; however, the current study showed that social interaction, including social curiosity and independence, has increased over 20 years. The effect of preventive intervention in local elderly management centers, health care centers, and health promotion facilities may be one of the causes for this increase.

Oxytocin (OT) has a positive effect on the amount of affectionate and stimulatory involvement parents have with their infants. However, the association between OT and parenting toddlers is unclear in relation to a parenting approach that aims to develop and support child autonomy. Thus, we hypothesized that parental OT might be inversely correlated with parenting that supports autonomy in toddlers. We recruited a convenience sample of 50 women (age range 24–44) and 30 men (age range 31–42) in Japan via community sampling and obtained urine samples to measure OT levels. The Interaction Rating Scale, which evaluates the social competence of children and the parenting skills of caregivers, including autonomy support, was used. Multiple regression analysis that adjusted for covariates (age, number of children, self-rated health, and education) was performed to evaluate the association between OT and parent–toddler interactions. Maternal OT levels were inversely correlated with children’s empathy and mothers’ respect for autonomy and responsiveness development (p

Although active listening is an influential behavior, which can affect the social responses of others, the neural correlates underlying its perception have remained unclear. Sensing active listening in social interactions is accompanied by an improvement in the recollected impressions of relevant experiences and is thought to arouse positive feelings. We therefore hypothesized that the recognition of active listening activates the reward system, and that the emotional appraisal of experiences that had been subject to active listening would be improved. To test these hypotheses, we conducted functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) on participants viewing assessments of their own personal experiences made by evaluators with or without active listening attitude. Subjects rated evaluators who showed active listening more positively. Furthermore, they rated episodes more positively when they were evaluated by individuals showing active listening. Neural activation in the ventral striatum was enhanced by perceiving active listening, suggesting that this was processed as rewarding. It also activated the right anterior insula, representing positive emotional reappraisal processes. Furthermore, the mentalizing network was activated when participants were being evaluated, irrespective of active listening behavior. Therefore, perceiving active listening appeared to result in positive emotional appraisal and to invoke mental state attribution to the active listener.

This six-year follow-up study was designed to analyse the relationship between social interaction and the prevention of dementia. All participants (aged 65 years and above) lived in farming communities near major urban centers in Japan. The contents of the questionnaire covered social interaction (using an index of social interaction constituting 18 items), health status, physical function, age, and gender. Residents who needed care and had disease at baseline survey were excluded from analysis. After the baseline survey, 35 participants among 593 were diagnosed as dementia within the six-year period. Results showed that: (1) baseline age was related to dementia; (2) greater social interaction was positively related to reduced dementia; (3) the multiple logistic regression analysis adjusted for baseline age, gender indicated that high frequency of newspaper reading, health motivation, life style motivation, and active approach were related to dementia prevention. These findings highlight the importance of social interaction in dementia prevention.

The aim of this paper was to validate the Interaction Rating Scale for Children (IRSC) as an evidence-based practical index of social skills. Twenty 5-6-year-old preschool students participated in our study. Participants were required to complete a 5-minute interaction session and were evaluated using the IRSC. A motion capture machine, based on an ecologically valid interaction within a candy-distribution setting, monitored participants' head movements. Results indicated a moderately high correlation between IRSC scores and head movements. When cooperation was high, the "Pitch" was higher (r = 0.548, p < .05) and the "Yaw" was lower (r = -0.685, p < .01). When self-control was high, the "Pitch" was lower (r = -0.576, p < .01).The IRSC is able to measure social competence with high validity. Thus, the IRSC is a helpful tool for understanding the development of peer relationships.

Background Understanding patterns of health service utilization can improve health care and increase use of health services. We examined patterns of health service utilization among residents of Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Methods A total of 500 adults were surveyed using paper-based questionnaires. The χ2 test and multiple logistic regression were used to identify associations between factors. Results 44.1% of respondents had visited a physician during the previous 12 months. After controlling for determinants, the significant predictors of utilization of health service were attention to health examinations (OR = 3.6, CI: 1.93–6.76), being married (OR = 2.7, CI: 1.50–4.72), being satisfied with the overall cleanliness of the hospital (OR = 2.4, CI: 1.12–5.19), being a nonsmoker (OR = 2.2, CI: 1.21–3.98), having periodic physical examinations (OR = 2.2, CI: 1.25–3.71), not being a hospital patient during the previous 3 years (OR = 2.1, CI: 1.22–3.73), having proper documentation (OR = 1.9, CI: 1.10–3.43), having medical insurance (OR = 1.9, CI: 1.96–3.28), not wanting to receive information on food and nutrition (OR = 0.6, CI: 0.36–0.96), having more than 5 household members (OR = 0.5, CI: 0.50–0.85), low income (OR = 0.5, CI: 0.30–0.85), lack of concern for food and nutrition (OR = 0.5, CI: 0.28–0.84), self-medication during the past 12 months (OR = 0.4, CI: 0.24–0.69), and desire for treatment abroad (OR = 0.4, CI: 0.20–0.60). Conclusions A number of health-related behaviors and sociodemographic factors were important predictors of health service utilization.

Japanese regulations have aimed to monitor night care for children since 1981, when a tragic accident took the life of a child in an unauthorized ch ild care center. Nevertheless, concerns persist about the efficacy of the care of children outside the home during the nighttime hours. This longitudinal project assessed the development and adaptation of children who had been in night care for a period of five years. Parents and child care professionals completed surveys: The former about the home environment and their own perceptions of their experience of childrearing, and the latter about the children's development. The results suggest that factors in the home environment, rather than center-based care, explain developmental risks.

The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine the effects of (a) parent–child interaction and (b) home environment on the early development of empathy in toddlers. A total of 176 Japanese families (both young children and their parents) were enrolled in this study. Laboratory assessment of children's empathy development and caregiver's rearing competence was made during a controlled observation of parent–child interaction. The results of this study suggest that of all the factors examined, the degree of parent–child interaction, the stability of long-term parenting practices, parental attitude, and mother's mental health status were correlated with development of empathy in children. These findings provide new indicators for the development of individualized intervention methods for use in clinical practice.

The purpose of this studywas to clarify the effects of using wood products in older persons' environment by means of an intervention study. The participants were 44 older persons in a single assisted-living facility. Evaluators ob- served the participants' behavior at 5 points: (1) not using any products (baseline), (2) using plastic tables and chairs, (3) using wood tables and chairs, (4) using wood tableware, (5) continually using wood products for 5 weeks. Health care pro- fessionals evaluated the older persons' health status and activities of daily liv ing through regular observation.The results indicated that regular use of wood products significantly increased the social interactionand activity levels of the elder. Thus, use of wood products may enhance the possibility of preventing mental and physical decline in the frail elderly.

Self health assessment is a simple indicator that is widely used for measuring an individual’s perception of his or her overall health. Many studies have been conducted by way of showing which particular aspects should be included in health self assessment, especially in developed world. In the developing world, however, very few studies have examined self health assessment. The aim of this study was to identify particular aspects and associations in self health assessment and differences between subgroups in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. The area sampling approach and Kish tables were used for selecting respondents. Total 500 respondents were surveyed by paper-based questionnaires. Spearman’s analysis and multiple logistic regression analysis were used to show relations between variables. Sociodemographic status, such as age and gender, proved to be important in self health assessment. Other factors affecting self health assessment included the number of family members, daily life and lifestyles, social environment, community motivation, and utilization of health services. Women, the elderly, or people with less-than- normal access to information suffer from poor self-assessed health. People who are socially inactive and who have poor living conditions are less likely to use health care services and are likely to assess their health as “poor.” In order to reduce the poor self-assessed health status it is important to address disparities in socioeconomic factors, such as age, gender, employment, and residential area. In addition, more attention should be paid to community and health services, as well as to health promotion and empowerment activities, including income-generation activities. Further research is also needed, however, for better understanding of about the local people and their health-related issues.

With increasing numbers of women joining the evening/nighttime and extended-hour workforce, there is a need for quality childcare during these hours. This project, conducted in Japan, sought to compare the effects of expanded child-care on the health of 271 school-aged children. Parents completed a survey on the childrearing environment at home, their feelings of self-efficacy, and the presence of support for childcare; and childcare professionals evaluated the development of these school-aged children. Children responded to questions regarding their health. Results of the multiple regression analysis indicate that factors in the home environment, not length of time in center-based care, explained health risks at school age.

We aimed to clarify the effects of the praise of mothers on their 18-month-old offspring by tracing the trajectory of the latter’s’ social competence from this time to 30 and 42 months. The participants were 226 mother-child dyads whose interaction was observed when the children were 18, 30, and 42 months old. The features of mother-child interaction, and specifically the social proficiency of the children, were examined using the Interaction Rating Scale (IRS) as an aspect of social competence. Our findings indicate that caregivers’ praise of 18-month-old children is very important in promoting a high-level trajectory of child social competence from that time to 30 and 42 months. It is hoped that caregivers and health care professionals will use these findings appropriately when providing care giving support to parents.

Effects of early extended child care on children’s functioning from age one year through the end of year six were examined in the Japan Child Care Cohort Study. This longitudinal project sought to assess the developmental and adaptation effects on children. Parents completed a survey on the childrearing environment at home, their feelings of self-efficacy, and the available support for childcare. Childcare professionals evaluated the development of children. The results, using a panel cohort method, indicated that although parenting was a stronger and more consistent predictor of children’s development than was the early extended child-care experience, support from the spouse predicted higher vocabulary development.

Purpose. The purpose of this paper is to clarify the validity of the Interaction Rating Scale Advanced (IRSA) as an evidence-based practical index of social skills. Methods. The participants in our study were 17 high school students. The participants completed the five-minute interaction session and were observed using the IRSA. Their teacher evaluated their social competence based on regular observation in school. Results. The results indicated the high correlation between IRSA scores and teacher's practical evaluation. IRSA can measure social competence with high validity. Conclusion. The IRSA provides further evidence of the fact that in order to study social competence development, it is important to evaluate various features of the interaction like IRSA subscales.

Background: With increasing numbers of women joining the evening/nighttime and extended-hour workforce, there is a need for quality childcare during these hours. Methods: This project, conducted in Japan, sought to compare the effects of expanded child-care on the development and adaptation of 185 young children after five years in care. Parents completed a survey on the childrearing environment at home, their feelings of self-confidence, and the presence of support for childcare. Childcare professionals evaluated the development of children. Results: The results of multiple regression analysis indicate that factors in the home environment, not length of center-based care, explained developmental risks five years later. Conclusion: High quality center-based childcare provides good condition of children's development after five years. For further evidence to study children's development, it is important to follow up to evaluate various features of longer duration.

Background: This study investigated developmental change and stability in infant responses to the still-face (SF) situation, as well as predictive validity at age 18 months, focusing on autonomy and responsiveness.Methods: A total of 231 children (117 boys and 114 girls) and their Japanese mothers were observed in a face-to-face SF situation at two infant ages (4 and 9 months), as well as a caregiver-child teaching interaction at age 18 months. Each infant’s facial expression, gaze direction, and vocalization were coded according to the SF paradigm, including the Natural Interaction (NI) and SF phases. Each child’s Autonomy and Responsiveness to the Caregiver at age 18 months were both evaluated by means of the Interaction Rating Scale.Results: The results indicated that negative facial expression and vocalization in the SF phases at age 9 months predicted the Autonomy rating at age 18 months, while positive facial expression and gaze toward the caregiver in the NI at age 9 months predicted the Responsiveness to Caregiver rating at age 18 months.Conclusions: The results are discussed in the context of developmental continuity and change in the children’s social cognition and voluntary movements.

Background: The present study examines gender differences in the correlations between intelligence and developmental problems as well as social competence in first graders. Methods: Ninety parent-child dyads participated in this study. The children comprised 7-year-olds recruited from the first grade of an elementary school. All the children were administered the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Third Edition (WISC-III), Parent-child Interaction Rating Scale (IRS), and the parent report version of Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Results: The findings clarified that the processing speed of boys significantly correlated with their peer relationship. On the other hand, the emotional symptoms exhibited by girls had a more common association with their intellectual abilities. The correlations between parenting and intellectual abilities differed in boys and girls. Conclusions: Children’s gender should be taken into account when assessing the diversity in their intellectual abilities and developmental problems. Moreover, parenting also influences the development of children in various ways.

Background: It is known that sleep problems impact children’s health, learning, and school performance. The purpose of this paper is to examine the association between sleeping habits and social competence development.Methods: Three hundred and nine caregiver-child dyads participated in this study, which was conducted as part of a Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST) project. The caregivers answered some questionnaires about sleeping habits when the child was 9 months and 18 months old. Caregiver-child interaction was observed when the child was 30 months old, and the features of the interaction were examined using the Interaction Rating Scale (IRS) as a measure of social competence.Results: The caregivers’ attitude toward sleeping in the 9-month period was found to be significantly correlated with the children’s social competence at 30 months. Moreover the caregivers’ attitude toward sleeping in the 9-month period significantly correlated with the children’s sleeping habits at 9 and 18 months.Conclusions: These findings show that the caregivers’ attitude toward sleeping is an important factor influencing the development of children’s social competence.

Background: Many studies have suggested that the daily emotional interactions between a child and his/her caregiver play a significant role in his/her development. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the trajectory patterns of parenting patterns of caregivers raising toddlers affect the social competence of the toddlers. Methods: The study participants were 246 dyads of 18-month-old children (baseline) and their caregivers, which was conducted as part of a Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST) project. We used the Interaction Rating Scale (IRS) to evaluate the children’s social competence. We assessed the child rearing environments by analyzing the caregivers’ responses to the Index of Child Care Environment (ICCE). Results: Multiple logistic regression analysis showed that the children’s total score on the IRS was significantly related to how frequently they sang songs together with their caregivers. Their score was also significantly related to how closely their caregiver worked with his/her partner in raising the child. These relationships did not change according to demographic information. Conclusions: The results confirm previous findings on the relationship between parenting patterns and children’s social competence. In particular, the study shows that varied and continual parenting significantly affects a child’s social competence.

Title. Relationship of working mothers’ parenting style and consistency to early childhood development: a longitudinal investigation. Aim. This paper is a report of a longitudinal study of the relationship of working mothers’ parenting style to their children’s social competence and vocabulary/motor/intellectual development. Background. With an increasing number of women choosing to remain in the workforce after starting a family, there has been a concomitant increase in use of non-parental childcare facilities to help look after the child while the mother is at work. This increase in non-parental care has led to a dramatic change in the traditional child-rearing environment. Methods. Long-term investigations were conducted over a period of 2 years in 41 Japanese government-licensed childcare facilities. Child development was evaluated by childcare professionals and parenting style was assessed by questionnaire. A total of 504 children and their mothers participated in the study. Data collection was carried out in 2004 and 2006. Findings. We found that the changes in parenting style were statistically significantly related to children’s development after 2 years. For instance, changes in the parent-child playing routine contributed to the child’s social competence (odds ratio = 11·088). Variation in working mothers’ disciplinary practices was also associated with children’s vocabulary development after 2 years (odds ratio = 2·246). Conclusion. Working mothers should increase interactions with their children in their free time to reduce the risk of developmental delay. Daily childcare support provided by family members or social organizations for long-term working mothers is helpful in mediating the negative relationship of mothers’ working with children’s development.

Purpose) This study was aimed to explore factors related to functional decline of community dwelling elderly from the aspect of activities of daily living in a nine-year follow-up study. (Subjects) The subjects were 141 males and 151 females living in a farming village neighboring a large city in the Chubu District of Japan. (Methods) We investigated the age, sex, and presence/absence of illness, social interaction, and exercise habits of each subject. The baseline study was conducted in 1996 with a follow-up in 2005. The chi-square test and multiple logistic regression analysis was used to examine the relationships of independence in physical function with age, sex, and presence/absence of illness, social interaction, and habitual exercise. Analyses were performed using the computer program SAS. (Results) The results of the present study indicate that decline of physical function was related with decline of ability to step up and down. (Conclusion) It seems advisable to provide an intensive program for individuals when they begin to have difficulty stepping up and down (the group at risk). However, the validity of the program identified by the authors has not yet been tested. At the same time, it would be desirable to implement a program prepared on the basis of these findings and evaluate its effectiveness.

With increasing numbers of women joining the evening/nighttime workforce, there is a need for quality childcare during these hours. This project, conducted in Japan, sought to compare the effects of expanded childcare on the development and adaptation of 866 young children after one year. Parents completed a survey on the childrearing environment at home, their feelings of self-efficacy, and the presence of support for childcare. Childcare professionals evaluated the development of children. The results of the multiple regression analysis indicate that factors in the home environment, not type of centerbased care, explained developmental risks one year later.

目的：本研究は，地域に在住する高齢者の社会関連性および生活習慣と3年後の要介護状態との関連を明らかにすることを目的とした．方法：対象は大都市近郊農村の65歳以上の在宅居住者であり，戸別訪問による配票留置の記名自記式質問紙を用いた．有効回答は，調査両年（2002年，2005年）に回答し，かつ両年の要介護状態不明者を除く，601名であった．調査内容は，年齢，性別，要介護状態，罹患，ADL，社会関連性指標，生活習慣であった．結果：1）社会関連性指標項目では「期待役割の遂行」「興味対象あり」「生活の工夫」「積極的に取り組む」「社会貢献の可能性」が，また生活習慣項目では「栄養バランスの配慮」「運動の実施」が，いずれも乏しい場合，3年後の要介護状態と有意に関連していた．2）年齢，性別，要介護状態（基準年），罹患，ADLを調整変数として投入した多重ロジスティック回帰分析では，社会関連性指標項目のうち「期待役割の遂行」と「社会貢献の可能性」が，3年後の要介護状態と有意な関連を示した．結論：地域在住高齢者の日常生活における社会との関わりの促進が心身機能の維持増進につながる根拠を踏まえ，今後の介護予防マネジメント等への活用が期待される．