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Dilution of a fatty acid micellar solution at basic pH toward neutrality results in spontaneous formation of vesicles with a broad size distribution. However, when vesicles of a defined size are present before dilution, the size distribution of the newly formed vesicles is strongly biased toward that of the seed vesicles. This so-called matrix effect is believed to be a key feature of early life. Here we reproduced this effect for oleate micelles and seed vesicles of either oleate or dioleoylphosphatidylcholine. Fluorescence measurements showed that the vesicle contents do not leak out during the replication process. We hypothesized that the matrix effect results from vesicle fission induced by an imbalance of material across both leaflets of the vesicle upon initial insertion of fatty acids into the outer leaflet of the seed vesicle. This was supported by experiments that showed a significant increase in vesicle size when the equilibration of oleate over both leaflets was enhanced by either slowing down the rate of fatty acid addition or increasing the rate of fatty acid transbilayer movement. Coarse-grained molecular-dynamics simulations showed excellent agreement with the experimental results and provided further mechanistic details of the replication process.

In this study we address the stability of integration of proteins in membranes. Using dynamic atomic force spectroscopy, we measured the strength of incorporation of peptides in lipid bilayers. The peptides model the transmembrane parts of alpha-helical proteins and were studied in both ordered peptide-rich and unordered peptide-poor bilayers. Using gold-coated AFM tips and thiolated peptides, we were able to observe force events which are related to the removal of single peptide molecules out of the bilayer. The data demonstrate that the peptides are very stably integrated into the bilayer and that single barriers within the investigated region of loading rates resist their removal. The distance between the ground state and the barrier for peptide removal was found to be 0.75 +/- 0.15 nm in different systems. This distance falls within the thickness of the interfacial layer of the bilayer. We conclude that the bilayer interface region plays an important role in stably anchoring transmembrane proteins into membranes.

Nisin is an example of type-A lantibiotics that contain cyclic lanthionine rings and unusual dehydrated amino acids. Among the numerous pore-forming antimicrobial peptides, type-A lantibiotics form an unique family of post-translationally modified peptides. Via the recognition of cell wall precursor lipid II, nisin has the capacity to form pores against Gram-positive bacteria with an extremely high activity in the nanomolar (nM) range. Here we report a high-resolution NMR spectroscopy study of nisin/lipid II interactions in SDS micelles as a model membrane system in order to elucidate the mechanism of molecular recognition at residue level. The binding to lipid II was studied through (15)N-(1)H HSQC titration, backbone amide proton temperature coefficient analysis, and heteronuclear (15)N[(1)H]-NOE relaxation dynamics experiments. Upon the addition of lipid II, significant changes were monitored in the N-terminal part of nisin. An extremely low amide proton temperature coefficient (Delta delta/Delta T) was found for the amide proton of Ala3 (> -0.1 ppb/K) in the complex form. This suggests tight hydrogen bonding and/or isolation from the bulk solvent for this residue. Large chemical shift perturbations were also observed in the first two rings. In contrast, the C-terminal part of nisin was almost unaffected. This part of the molecule remains flexible and solvent-exposed. On the basis of our results, a multistep pore-forming mechanism is proposed. The N-terminal part of nisin first binds to lipid II, and a subsequent structural rearrangement takes place. The C-terminal part of nisin is possibly responsible for the activation of the pore formation. In light of the emerging antibiotic resistance problems, an understanding of the specific recognition mechanism of nisin with lipid II at the residue specific level may therefore aid in the development of novel antibiotics.

The mechanism by which phospholipids translocate (flop) across the E. coli inner membrane remains to be elucidated. We tested the hypothesis that the membrane-spanning domains of proteins catalyze ...

Resistance to antibiotics is increasing in some groups of clinically important pathogens. For instance, high vancomycin resistance has emerged in enterococci. Promising alternative antibiotics are the peptide antibiotics, abundant in host defense systems, which kill their targets by permeabilizing the plasma membrane. These peptides generally do not act via specific receptors and are active in the micromolar range. Here it is shown that vancomycin and the antibacterial peptide nisin Z use the same target: the membrane-anchored cell wall precursor Lipid II. Nisin combines high affinity for Lipid II with its pore-forming ability, thus causing the peptide to be highly active (in the nanomolar range).

The ability of a synthetic peptide corresponding to the presequence of cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV from yeast to cause intermembrane contacts was investigated using monolayer techniques. The presequence inserted efficiently into the monolayer with a specificity for the mitochondrial cardiolipin. In the inserted form, the peptide strongly promoted the formation of close contacts with large unilamellar lipid vesicles present in the subphase, a property which was also specific for cardiolipin. The contacts formed were stable and tight and resulted in the flow of lipids from the vesicles to the monolayer. These results led to new suggestions on the involvement of intermembrane contact formation in mitochondrial protein import and membrane biogenesis.

The conformational consequences of the interaction of the PhoE signal peptide with bilayers of different types of phospholipids was investigated using circular dichroism. It was found that interaction of the signal peptide with anionic phospholipid vesicles of dioleoylphosphatidylglycerol and dioleoylphosphatidylserine results in induction of high amounts of alpha-helical structure of 70% and 57%, respectively. Upon addition of the signal peptide to cardiolipin vesicles, less but still significant alpha-helical structure was induced (29%). In contrast, no alpha-helix formation was observed upon the interaction of the signal peptide with zwitterionic dioleoylphosphatidylcholine vesicles. In bilayers of dioleoylphosphatidylcholine with dioleoylphosphatidylglycerol, it was shown that in the presence of 100 mM NaCl a minimum amount of 50% of negatively charged lipid was required for induction of the maximal percentage of alpha-helix, whereas in the absence of salt a minimum amount of 35% of negatively charged lipid was necessary. Induction of alpha-helix structure appeared to be correlated with functionality, since, in a less functional analogue of the PhoE signal peptide, the PhoE-[Asp-19,20] signal peptide, less alpha-helix was induced than in the wild-type PhoE signal peptide. It is proposed that the interaction with anionic phospholipids is essential for a functional conformation of the PhoE signal sequence during protein translocation.

Purpose: Cisplatin nanocapsules, nanoprecipitates of cisplatin encapsulated in phospholipid bilayers, exhibit increased in vitro toxicity compared with the free drug toward a panel of human ovarian carcinoma cell lines. To elucidate the mechanism of cell killing by nanocapsules and to understand the cell line dependence of nanocapsule efficacy, the route of uptake and the intracellular fate of the nanocapsules were investigated. Experimental Design: Intracellular platinum accumulation and cisplatin-DNA-adduct formation were measured in cell lines that differ in sensitivity to cisplatin nanocapsules. Confocal fluorescence microscopy in combination with down-regulation with small interfering RNAwas used to map the route of cellular uptake of nanocapsules containing fluorescein-labeled cisplatin. Results: In sensitive cell lines, cisplatin fromnanocapsules is takenupmuchmore efficiently than the free compound. In IGROV-1cells, the increased platinum accumulation results in augmented cisplatin-DNA-adduct formation. Confocal fluorescence microscopy revealed that the uptake of nanocapsules is energy dependent. Colocalization with markers of early and late endosomes indicated uptake via endocytosis. Down-regulation of caveolin-1 with small interfering RNA inhibited the uptake and cytotoxic effect of nanocapsules in IGROV-1cells. Ovarian carcinoma cells, in which the nanocapsules are less effective than in IGROV-1 cells, do not internalize the nanocapsules (OVCAR-3) or accumulate them in an endocytic compartment after clathrinmediated endocytosis (A2780). Conclusions: The high cytotoxicity of cisplatin nanocapsules requires caveolin-1-dependent endocytosis that is followed by release of the drug from a late endosomal/lysosomal compartment and cisplatin-DNA-adduct formation.The findings may be applied in predicting the efficacy of nanoparticulate anticancer drug delivery systems in treating different tumor types.

Purpose: Cisplatin nanocapsules, nanoprecipitates of cisplatin encapsulated in phospholipid bilayers, exhibit increased in vitro toxicity compared with the free drug toward a panel of human ovarian carcinoma cell lines. To elucidate the mechanism of cell killing by nanocapsules and to understand the cell line dependence of nanocapsule efficacy, the route of uptake and the intracellular fate of the nanocapsules were investigated. Experimental Design: Intracellular platinum accumulation and cisplatin-DNA-adduct formation were measured in cell lines that differ in sensitivity to cisplatin nanocapsules. Confocal fluorescence microscopy in combination with down-regulation with small interfering RNAwas used to map the route of cellular uptake of nanocapsules containing fluorescein-labeled cisplatin. Results: In sensitive cell lines, cisplatin fromnanocapsules is takenupmuchmore efficiently than the free compound. In IGROV-1cells, the increased platinum accumulation results in augmented cisplatin-DNA-adduct formation. Confocal fluorescence microscopy revealed that the uptake of nanocapsules is energy dependent. Colocalization with markers of early and late endosomes indicated uptake via endocytosis. Down-regulation of caveolin-1 with small interfering RNA inhibited the uptake and cytotoxic effect of nanocapsules in IGROV-1cells. Ovarian carcinoma cells, in which the nanocapsules are less effective than in IGROV-1 cells, do not internalize the nanocapsules (OVCAR-3) or accumulate them in an endocytic compartment after clathrinmediated endocytosis (A2780). Conclusions: The high cytotoxicity of cisplatin nanocapsules requires caveolin-1-dependent endocytosis that is followed by release of the drug from a late endosomal/lysosomal compartment and cisplatin-DNA-adduct formation.The findings may be applied in predicting the efficacy of nanoparticulate anticancer drug delivery systems in treating different tumor types.

The function of the mitochondrial phospholipid cardiolipin (CL) is thought to depend on its acyl chain composition. The present study aims at a better understanding of the way the CL species profile is established in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by using depletion of the acyl-CoA-binding protein Acb1p as a tool to modulate the cellular acyl chain content. Despite the presence of an intact CL remodeling system, acyl chains shorter than 16 carbon atoms (C16) were found to accumulate in CL in cells lacking Acb1p. Further experiments revealed that Taz1p, a key CL remodeling enzyme, was not responsible for the shortening of CL in the absence of Acb1p. This left de novo CL synthesis as the only possible source of acyl chains shorter than C16 in CL. Experiments in which the substrate specificity of the yeast cardiolipin synthase Crd1p and the acyl chain composition of individual short CL species were investigated, indicated that both CL precursors (i.e. phosphatidylglycerol and CDP-diacylglycerol) contribute to comparable extents to the shorter acyl chains in CL in acb1 mutants. Based on the findings, we conclude that the fatty acid composition of mature CL in yeast is governed by the substrate specificity of the CL-specific lipase Cld1p and the fatty acid composition of the Taz1p substrates.

The function of the mitochondrial phospholipid cardiolipin (CL) is thought to depend on its acyl chain composition. The present study aims at a better understanding of the way the CL species profile is established in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by using depletion of the acyl-CoA-binding protein Acb1p as a tool to modulate the cellular acyl chain content. Despite the presence of an intact CL remodeling system, acyl chains shorter than 16 carbon atoms (C16) were found to accumulate in CL in cells lacking Acb1p. Further experiments revealed that Taz1p, a key CL remodeling enzyme, was not responsible for the shortening of CL in the absence of Acb1p. This left de novo CL synthesis as the only possible source of acyl chains shorter than C16 in CL. Experiments in which the substrate specificity of the yeast cardiolipin synthase Crd1p and the acyl chain composition of individual short CL species were investigated, indicated that both CL precursors (i.e. phosphatidylglycerol and CDP-diacylglycerol) contribute to comparable extents to the shorter acyl chains in CL in acb1 mutants. Based on the findings, we conclude that the fatty acid composition of mature CL in yeast is governed by the substrate specificity of the CL-specific lipase Cld1p and the fatty acid composition of the Taz1p substrates.

Previously, a 2D gel electrophoresis approach was developed for the Escherichia coli inner membrane, which detects membrane protein complexes that are stable in sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) at room temperature, and dissociate under the in!uence of tri!uoroethanol [R. E. Spelbrink et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280 (2005), 28742-8]. Here, the method was applied to the evolutionarily related mitochondrial inner membrane that was isolated from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Surprisingly, only very few proteins were found to be dissociated by tri!uoroethanol of which Lpd1p, a component of multiple protein complexes localized in the mitochondrial matrix, is the most prominent. Usage of either milder or more stringent conditions did not yield any additional proteins that were released by !uorinated alcohols. This strongly suggests that membrane protein complexes in yeast are less stable in SDS solution than their E. coli counterparts, which might be due to the overall reduced hydrophobicity of mitochondrial transmembrane proteins.

Nisin is a post-translationally modified antimicrobial peptide produced by Lactococcus lactis which binds to lipid II in the membrane to form pores and inhibit cell-wall synthesis. A nisinresistant (NisR) strain of L. lactis, which is able to grow at a 75-fold higher nisin concentration than its parent strain, was investigated with respect to changes in the cell wall. Direct binding studies demonstrated that less nisin was able to bind to lipid II in the membranes of L. lactis NisR than in the parent strain. In contrast to vancomycin binding, which showed ring-like binding, nisin was observed to bind in patches close to cell-division sites in both the wild-type and the NisR strains. Comparison of modifications in lipoteichoic acid of the L. lactis strains revealed an increase in D-alanyl esters and galactose as substituents in L. lactis NisR, resulting in a less negatively charged cell wall. Moreover, the cell wall displays significantly increased thickness at the septum. These results indicate that shielding the membrane and thus the lipid II molecule, thereby decreasing abduction of lipid II and subsequent pore-formation, is a major defence mechanism of L. lactis against nisin.

Lipid II is a crucial component in bacterial cell wall synthesis [Breukink, E., et al. (1999) Science 286, 2361−2364]. It is the target of a number of important antibiotics, which include vancomycin and nisin [Breukink, E., and de Kruijff, B. (2006) Nat. Rev. Drug Discovery 5, 321−332]. Here we show that a hybrid antibiotic that consists of vancomycin and nisin fragments is significantly more active than the separate fragments against vancomycin resistant entercocci (VRE). Three different hybrids were synthesized using click chemistry and compared. Optimal spacer lengths and connection points were predicted using computer modeling.

Natamycin is a polyene antibiotic that is commonly used as an antifungal agent because of its broad spectrum of activity and the lack of development of resistance. Other polyene antibiotics, like nystatin and filipin are known to interact with sterols, with some specificity for ergosterol thereby causing leakage of essential components and cell death. The mode of action of natamycin is unknown and is investigated in this study using different in vitro and in vivo approaches. Isothermal titration calorimetry and direct binding studies revealed that natamycin binds specifically to ergosterol present in model membranes. Yeast sterol biosynthetic mutants revealed the importance of the double bonds in the B-ring of ergosterol for the natamycin-ergosterol interaction and the consecutive block of fungal growth. Surprisingly, in strong contrast to nystatin and filipin, natamycin did not change the permeability of the yeast plasma membrane under conditions that growth was blocked. Also, in ergosterol containing model membranes, natamycin did not cause a change in bilayer permeability. This demonstrates that natamycin acts via a novel mode of action and blocks fungal growth by binding specifically to ergosterol

Moderate concentrations of the alcohol 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol (TFE) cause the coupled unfolding and dissociation into subunits of the homotetrameric potassium channel KcsA, in a process that is partially irreversible when the protein is solubilized in plain dodecyl â-D-maltoside (DDM) micelles [Barrera et al. (2005) Biochemistry 44, 14344-52]. Here we report that the transition from the folded tetramer to the unfolded monomer becomes completely reversible when KcsA is solubilized in mixed micelles composed of the detergent DDM and the lipids DOPE (1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine) and DOPG (1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-[phospho-rac-(1-glycerol)]). This result suggests that lipids may act as effectors in the tetramerization of KcsA. The observed reversibility allowed the determination of the standard free energy of the folding reaction of KcsA: ¢G ) 30.5 ( 3.1 kcalâmol-1. We also observed that, prior to the unfolding of the tetramer, the presence of lower TFE concentrations causes the disassembly of supramolecular clusters of KcsA into the individual tetrameric molecules. Within the limits of experimental resolution, this is also a reversible process, but unlike the tetramer to monomer transition from above, the level of clustering is not influenced by the presence of solubilized lipids. These observations suggest a distinct role of the lipids in the different in vitro assembly steps (folding/tetramerization and clustering) of KcsA.

Natamycin is a polyene antibiotic that is commonly used as an antifungal agent because of its broad spectrum of activity and the lack of development of resistance. Other polyene antibiotics, like nystatin and filipin are known to interact with sterols, with some specificity for ergosterol thereby causing leakage of essential components and cell death. The mode of action of natamycin is unknown and is investigated in this study using different in vitro and in vivo approaches. Isothermal titration calorimetry and direct binding studies revealed that natamycin binds specifically to ergosterol present in model membranes. Yeast sterol biosynthetic mutants revealed the importance of the double bonds in the B-ring of ergosterol for the natamycin-ergosterol interaction and the consecutive block of fungal growth. Surprisingly, in strong contrast to nystatin and filipin, natamycin did not change the permeability of the yeast plasma membrane under conditions that growth was blocked. Also, in ergosterol containing model membranes, natamycin did not cause a change in bilayer permeability. This demonstrates that natamycin acts via a novel mode of action and blocks fungal growth by binding specifically to ergosterol

Ceramide-1-phosphate (Cer-1-P), one of the simplest of all sphingophospholipids, occurs in minor amounts in biological membranes. Yet recent evidence suggests important roles of this lipid as a novel second messenger with crucial tasks in cell survival and inflammatory responses. We present a detailed description of the physical chemistry of this hitherto little explored membrane lipid. At full hydration Cer-1-P forms a highly organized subgel (crystalline) bilayer phase (Lc) at low temperature, which transforms into a regular gel phase (L) at 45C, with the gel to fluid phase transition (LL) occurring at 65C. When incorporated at 5mol % in a phosphatidylcholine bilayer, the pKa2 of Cer-1-P, 7.390.03, lies within the physiological pH range. Inclusion of phosphatidylethanolamine in the phosphatidylcholine bilayer, at equimolar ratio, dramatically reduces the pKa2 to 6.640.03. We explain these results in light of the novel electrostatic/hydrogen bond switch model described recently for phosphatidic acid. In mixtures with dielaidoylphosphatidylethanolamine, small concentrations of Cer-1-P cause a large reduction of the lamellar-to-inverted hexagonal phase transition temperature, suggesting that Cer-1-P induces, like phosphatidic acid, negative membrane curvature in these types of lipid mixtures. These properties place Cer-1-P in a class more akin to certain glycerophospholipids (phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidic acid) than to any other sphingolipid. In particular, the similarities and differences between ceramide and Cer-1-P may be relevant in explaining some of their physiological roles.

Lipid II is a crucial component in bacterial cell wall synthesis [Breukink, E., et al. (1999) Science 286, 2361−2364]. It is the target of a number of important antibiotics, which include vancomycin and nisin [Breukink, E., and de Kruijff, B. (2006) Nat. Rev. Drug Discovery 5, 321−332]. Here we show that a hybrid antibiotic that consists of vancomycin and nisin fragments is significantly more active than the separate fragments against vancomycin resistant entercocci (VRE). Three different hybrids were synthesized using click chemistry and compared. Optimal spacer lengths and connection points were predicted using computer modeling.

Nisin is a post-translationally modified antimicrobial peptide produced by Lactococcus lactis which binds to lipid II in the membrane to form pores and inhibit cell-wall synthesis. A nisinresistant (NisR) strain of L. lactis, which is able to grow at a 75-fold higher nisin concentration than its parent strain, was investigated with respect to changes in the cell wall. Direct binding studies demonstrated that less nisin was able to bind to lipid II in the membranes of L. lactis NisR than in the parent strain. In contrast to vancomycin binding, which showed ring-like binding, nisin was observed to bind in patches close to cell-division sites in both the wild-type and the NisR strains. Comparison of modifications in lipoteichoic acid of the L. lactis strains revealed an increase in D-alanyl esters and galactose as substituents in L. lactis NisR, resulting in a less negatively charged cell wall. Moreover, the cell wall displays significantly increased thickness at the septum. These results indicate that shielding the membrane and thus the lipid II molecule, thereby decreasing abduction of lipid II and subsequent pore-formation, is a major defence mechanism of L. lactis against nisin.

The fusogenic properties of gramicidin were investigated by using large unilamellar dioleoylphosphatidylcholine vesicles. It is shown that gramicidin induces aggregation and fusion of these vesicles at peptide to lipid molar ratios exceeding 1/100. Both intervesicle lipid mixing and mixing of aqueous contents were demonstrated. Furthermore, increased static and dynamic light scattering and a broadening of 31P NMR signals occurred concomitant with lipid mixing. Freeze-fracture electron microscopy revealed a moderate vesicle size increase. Lipid mixing is paralleled by changes in membrane permeability: small solutes like carboxyfluorescein and smaller dextrans, FD-4(Mr approximately 4000), rapidly (1-2 min) leak out of the vesicles. However, larger molecules like FD-10 and FD-17 (Mr approximately 9400 and 17,200) are retained in the vesicles for greater than 10 min after addition of gramicidin, thereby making detection of contents mixing during lipid mixing possible. At low lipid concentrations (5 microM), lipid mixing and leakage are time resolved: leakage of CF shows a lag phase of 1-3 min, whereas lipid mixing is immediate and almost reaches completion during this lag phase. It is therefore concluded that leakage, just as contents mixing, occurs subsequent to aggregation and lipid mixing. Although addition of gramicidin at a peptide/lipid molar ratio exceeding 1/50 eventually leads to hexagonal HII phase formation and a loss of vesicle contents, it is concluded that leakage during fusion (1-2 min) is not the result of HII phase formation but is due to local changes in lipid structure caused by precursors of this phase. By making use of gramicidin derivatives and different solvent conformations, it is shown that there is a close parallel between the ability of the peptide to induce the HII phase and its ability to induce intervesicle lipid mixing and leakage. It is suggested that gramicidin-induced fusion and HII phase formation share common intermediates.

Phosphatidic acid (PA) is a minor but important phospholipid that, through specific interactions with proteins, plays a central role in several key cellular processes. The simple yet unique structure of PA, carrying just a phosphomonoester head group, suggests an important role for interactions with the positively charged essential residues in these proteins. We analyzed by solid-state magic angle spinning 31P NMR and molecular dynamics simulations the interaction of low concentrations of PA in model membranes with positively charged side chains of membrane-interacting peptides. Surprisingly, lysine and arginine residues increase the charge of PA, predominantly by forming hydrogen bonds with the phosphate of PA, thereby stabilizing the protein-lipid interaction. Our results demonstrate that this electrostatic/hydrogen bond switch turns the phosphate of PA into an effective and preferred docking site for lysine and arginine residues. In combination with the special packing properties of PA, PA may well be nature’s preferred membrane lipid for interfacial insertion of positively charged membrane protein domains.

In this study, we investigated how the presence of anionic lipids influenced the stability and folding properties of the potassium channel KcsA. By using a combination of gel electrophoresis, tryptophan fluorescence and acrylamide quenching experiments, we found that the presence of the anionic lipid phosphatidylglycerol (PG) in a phosphatidylcholine (PC) bilayer slightly stabilized the tetramer and protected it from trifluoroethanol- induced dissociation. Surprisingly, the presence of phosphatidic acid (PA) had a much larger effect on the stability of KcsA and this lipid, in addition, significantly influenced the folding properties of the protein. The data indicate that PA creates some specificity over PG, and that it most likely stabilizes the tetramer via both electrostatic and hydrogen bond interactions.

2,2,2-Trifluoroethanol (TFE), a low-dielectric solvent, has recently been used as a promising tool to probe the strength of intersubunit interactions in membrane proteins. An analysis of inner membrane proteins of Escherichia coli has identified several SDS-resistant protein complexes that separate into subunits upon exposure to TFE. One of these was the homo-heptameric stretch-activated mechanosensitive channel of small conductance (MscS), a ubiquitous component of the bacterial turgor-regulation system. Here we show that a substantial fraction of MscS retains its oligomeric state in cold lithiumdodecyl-sulfate gel electrophoresis. Exposure of MscS complexes to 10–15 vol % TFE in native membranes or nonionic detergent micelles before lithium-dodecyl-sulfate electrophoresis results in a complete dissociation into monomers, suggesting that at these concentrations TFE by itself disrupts or critically compromises intersubunit interactions. Patch-clamp analysis of giant E. coli spheroplasts expressing MscS shows that exposure to TFE in lower concentrations (0.5–5.0 vol %) causes leftward shifts of the dose-response curves when applied extracellularly, and rightward shifts when added from the cytoplasmic side. In the latter case, TFE increases the rate of tension-dependent inactivation and lengthens the process of recovery to the resting state. MscS responses to pressure ramps of different speeds indicate that in the presence of TFE most channels reside in the resting state and only at tensions near the activation threshold does TFE dramatically speed up inactivation. The effect of TFE is reversible as normal channel activity returns 15–30 min after a TFE washout. We interpret the observed midpoint shifts in terms of asymmetric partitioning of TFE into the membrane and distortion of the bilayer lateral pressure profile. We also relate the increased rate of inactivation and subunit separation with the capacity of TFE to perturb buried interhelical contacts in proteins and discuss these effects in the framework of the proposed gating mechanism of MscS.

To analyze proteins interacting at the membrane interface, a phospholipid analogue was used with a photoactivatable headgroup (ASA-DLPE, N-(4-azidosalicylamidyl)-1,2-dilauroyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine) for selective cross-linking. The peripheral membrane protein cytochrome c from the inner mitochondrial membrane was rendered carbonate wash-resistant by cross-linking to ASA-DLPE in a model membrane system, validating our approach. Cross-link products of cytochrome c and its precursor apocytochrome c were demonstrated by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization timeof-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) and were specifically detected by sodium dodecyl sulfatepolyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), taking advantage of the intrinsic UV absorbance of the cross-linker. Application of the method to inner mitochondrial membranes from Saccharomyces cerevisae revealed cross-link products of both exogenously added apocytochrome c and endogenous proteins with molecular weights around 34 and 72 kDa. Liquid chromatograpy (LC)-MS/MS was performed to identify these proteins, resulting in a list of candidate proteins potentially cross-linked at the membrane interface. The approach described here provides methodology for capturing phospholipid-protein interactions in their native environment of the biomembrane using modern proteomics techniques.

Translocation of the peptidoglycan precursor Lipid II across the cytoplasmic membrane is a key step in bacterial cell wall synthesis, but hardly understood. Using NBD-labelled Lipid II, we showed by fluorescence and TLC assays that Lipid II transport does not occur spontaneously and is not induced by the presence of single spanning helical transmembrane peptides that facilitate transbilayer movement of membrane phospholipids. MurG catalysed synthesis of Lipid II from Lipid I in lipid vesicles also did not result in membrane translocation of Lipid II. These findings demonstrate that a specialized protein machinery is needed for transmembrane movement of Lipid II. In line with this, we could demonstrate Lipid II translocation in isolated Escherichia coli inner membrane vesicles and this transport could be uncoupled from the synthesis of Lipid II at low temperatures. The transport process appeared to be independent from an energy source (ATP or proton motive force). Additionally, our studies indicate that translocation of Lipid II is coupled to transglycosylation activity on the periplasmic side of the inner membrane.

To analyze proteins interacting at the membrane interface, a phospholipid analogue was used with a photoactivatable headgroup (ASA-DLPE, N-(4-azidosalicylamidyl)-1,2-dilauroyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine) for selective cross-linking. The peripheral membrane protein cytochrome c from the inner mitochondrial membrane was rendered carbonate wash-resistant by cross-linking to ASA-DLPE in a model membrane system, validating our approach. Cross-link products of cytochrome c and its precursor apocytochrome c were demonstrated by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization timeof-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) and were specifically detected by sodium dodecyl sulfatepolyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), taking advantage of the intrinsic UV absorbance of the cross-linker. Application of the method to inner mitochondrial membranes from Saccharomyces cerevisae revealed cross-link products of both exogenously added apocytochrome c and endogenous proteins with molecular weights around 34 and 72 kDa. Liquid chromatograpy (LC)-MS/MS was performed to identify these proteins, resulting in a list of candidate proteins potentially cross-linked at the membrane interface. The approach described here provides methodology for capturing phospholipid-protein interactions in their native environment of the biomembrane using modern proteomics techniques.

Gut2, the mitochondrial glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, was previously shown to become preferentially labelled with photoactivatable phosphatidylcholine (PC), pointing to a functional relation between these molecules. In the present study we analyzed whether Gut2 functioning depends on the PC content of yeast cells, using PC biosynthetic mutants in which the PC content was lowered. PC depletion was found to reduce growth on glycerol and to increase glycerol excretion, both indicating that PC is needed for optimal Gut2 functioning in vivo. Using several in vitro approaches the nature of the dependence of Gut2 functioning on cellular PC contents was investigated. The results of these experiments suggest that it is unlikely that the effects observed in vivo are due to changes in cellular Gut2 content, in specific activity of Gut2 in isolated mitochondria, or in the membrane association of Gut2, upon lowering the PC level. The in vivo effects are more likely an indirect result of PC depletion-induced changes in the cellular context in which Gut2 functions, that are not manifested in the in vitro systems used.

The pore-forming antibacterial peptide magainin 2 was made divalent, tetravalent, and octavalent via a copper(I)-mediated 1-3 dipolar cycloaddition reaction (“click” chemistry). This series of poreforming compounds was tested in vitro for their ability to form pores in large unilamillar vesicles (LUVs). A large increase in the pore-forming capability was especially observed with the tetravalent and octavalent magainin compounds in the LUVs consisting of DOPC, and the octavalent magainin compound showed a marked increase with the DOPC/DOPG LUVs. Activity was observed in the low nanomolar range for these compounds.

The pore-forming antibacterial peptide magainin 2 was made divalent, tetravalent, and octavalent via a copper(I)-mediated 1-3 dipolar cycloaddition reaction (“click” chemistry). This series of poreforming compounds was tested in vitro for their ability to form pores in large unilamillar vesicles (LUVs). A large increase in the pore-forming capability was especially observed with the tetravalent and octavalent magainin compounds in the LUVs consisting of DOPC, and the octavalent magainin compound showed a marked increase with the DOPC/DOPG LUVs. Activity was observed in the low nanomolar range for these compounds.

Gut2, the mitochondrial glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, was previously shown to become preferentially labelled with photoactivatable phosphatidylcholine (PC), pointing to a functional relation between these molecules. In the present study we analyzed whether Gut2 functioning depends on the PC content of yeast cells, using PC biosynthetic mutants in which the PC content was lowered. PC depletion was found to reduce growth on glycerol and to increase glycerol excretion, both indicating that PC is needed for optimal Gut2 functioning in vivo. Using several in vitro approaches the nature of the dependence of Gut2 functioning on cellular PC contents was investigated. The results of these experiments suggest that it is unlikely that the effects observed in vivo are due to changes in cellular Gut2 content, in specific activity of Gut2 in isolated mitochondria, or in the membrane association of Gut2, upon lowering the PC level. The in vivo effects are more likely an indirect result of PC depletion-induced changes in the cellular context in which Gut2 functions, that are not manifested in the in vitro systems used.