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Objectives. To quantify socioeconomic inequalities in COVID-19 mortality in Colombia and to assess the extent to which type of health insurance, comorbidity burden, area of residence, and ethnicity account for such inequalities. Methods. We analyzed data from a retrospective cohort of COVID-19 cases. We estimated the relative and slope indices of inequality (RII and SII) using survival models for all participants and stratified them by age and gender. We calculated the percentage reduction in RII and SII after adjustment for potentially relevant factors. Results. We identified significant inequalities for the whole cohort and by subgroups (age and gender). Inequalities were higher among younger adults and gradually decreased with age, going from RII of 5.65 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 3.25, 9.82) in participants younger than 25 years to RII of 1.49 (95% CI = 1.41, 1.58) in those aged 65 years and older. Type of health insurance was the most important factor, accounting for 20% and 59% of the relative and absolute inequalities, respectively. Conclusions. Significant socioeconomic inequalities exist in COVID-19 mortality in Colombia. Health insurance appears to be the main contributor to those inequalities, posing challenges for the design of public health strategies. (Am J Public Health. 2022;112(S6):S586–S590. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306637 )

OBJECTIVES: Following the outbreak of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus and the subsequent global spread of the 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19), health systems and the populations who use them have faced unprecedented challenges. We aimed to measure the impact of COVID-19 on the uptake of hospital-based care at a national level. DESIGN: The study period (weeks ending 5 January to 28 June 2020) encompassed the pandemic announcement by the World Health Organization and the initiation of the UK lockdown. We undertook an interrupted time-series analysis to evaluate the impact of these events on hospital services at a national level and across demographics, clinical specialties and National Health Service Health Boards. SETTING: Scotland, UK. PARTICIPANTS: Patients receiving hospital care from National Health Service Scotland. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Accident and emergency (A&E) attendances, and emergency and planned hospital admissions measured using the relative change of weekly counts in 2020 to the averaged counts for equivalent weeks in 2018 and 2019. RESULTS: Before the pandemic announcement, the uptake of hospital care was largely consistent with historical levels. This was followed by sharp drops in all outcomes until UK lockdown, where activity began to steadily increase. This time-period saw an average reduction of −40.7% (95% confidence interval [CI]: −47.7 to −33.7) in A&E attendances, −25.8% (95% CI: −31.1 to −20.4) in emergency hospital admissions and −60.9% (95% CI: −66.1 to −55.7) in planned hospital admissions, in comparison to the 2018–2019 averages. All subgroup trends were broadly consistent within outcomes, but with notable variations across age groups, specialties and geography. CONCLUSIONS: COVID-19 has had a profoundly disruptive impact on hospital-based care across National Health Service Scotland. This has likely led to an adverse effect on non-COVID-19-related illnesses, increasing the possibility of potentially avoidable morbidity and mortality. Further research is required to elucidate these impacts.

The LGBTQ+ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender/-sexual, queer or questioning, intersex, asexual, and all subsects) population has been the target of federal and state discriminatory policies leading to high levels of institutional discrimination in the housing, employment, and health sectors. Social determinants of health such as housing conditions, economic opportunities, and access to health care may negatively and disproportionately affect the LGBTQ+ population and reduce their capacity to respond to environmental harm (e.g., obtaining necessary medical care). Social determinants of health have been shown to be associated with unequal harmful environmental exposure, primarily along lines of race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status. However, chronic diseases, such as respiratory diseases, cardiovascular disease, and cancer, associated with environmental exposure have been shown to occur in higher rates in the LGBTQ+ population than in the cisgender, heterosexual population. We explore how environmental exposures may disproportionately affect the LGBTQ+ population through examples of environmental exposures, health risks that have been linked to environmental exposures, and social institutions that could affect resilience to environmental stressors for this population. We provide recommendations for policymakers, public health officials, and researchers. (Am J Public Health. 2022;112(1):79–87. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306406 )

Objectives. To assess COVID-19 disparities in the active component US military with an emphasis on race and ethnicity. Methods. In this retrospective cohort study, we calculated the incidence of COVID-19 testing, infection, and hospitalization in the active component US military in calendar year 2020. Results. Overall, 61.3 per 100 population per year were tested for COVID-19, 10.4% of tests were positive, and 1.1% of infected individuals were hospitalized. Non-Hispanic Blacks and Hispanics had a rate of testing for COVID-19 similar to that of Whites but had a higher risk of infection (adjusted risk ratio [ARR] = 1.25 and 1.26, respectively) and hospitalization (ARR = 1.28 and 1.21, respectively). Conclusions. Although of lower magnitude than seen in civilian populations, racial and ethnic disparities in COVID-19 infection and hospitalizations exist in the US military despite universal eligibility for health care, similar rate of testing, and adjustment for comorbidities and other factors. Simply making health care coverage available may be insufficient to ensure health equity. Interventions to mitigate disparities in the US military should target the patient, provider, health care system, and society at large. (Am J Public Health. 2021;111(12):2194–2201. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306527 )

The aim of this study was to assess health inequalities by sexual attraction in the 2016-2017 Barcelona population, stratifying by sex. Methods: Data came from the 2016-2017 Barcelona Health Survey, where 3362 adults answered among other instruments the EuroQol-5 dimensions-5 levels (EQ-5D-5L), which measures five dimensions and summarizes health-related quality of life into a single utility index score. To assess health differences by sexual attraction, we constructed Tobit models for the EQ-5D index score and Poisson regression models for the EQ-5D dimensions. Nested models were constructed to examine the mediating role of discrimination and health-related variables. Results: After adjusting for sociodemographic variables, women feeling attraction to more than one sex showed a lower EQ-5D index score (worse health) than those with only other sex attraction (-0.042, p = 0.012), and higher prevalence of problems with mobility, usual activities, and anxiety/depression with the following adjusted prevalence ratios (aPR) and confidence intervals (CIs): 1.79 (95% CI 1.05-3.05), 1.84 (95% CI 1.05-3.21), and 1.76 (95% CI 1.27-2.43). Women feeling attraction only to their same sex also presented higher prevalence of anxiety/depression (aPR = 1.46, CI 95% 1.10-1.92). In contrast, differences were not observed for men. Conclusion: Women, but not men, feeling attraction to more than one sex and only same-sex attraction in Barcelona in 2016-2017 presented worse health than those feeling only other sex attraction, with discrimination playing a mediating role in explaining such inequalities. These results among women indicate the need to develop public health strategies in Barcelona addressed to lesbian and bisexual women, considering the intersection of gender and sexual orientation.

Objectives To reduce disparities in HIV care outcomes among Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) immigrants living with HIV in the U.S., it is necessary to identify factors influencing HIV care in this population. A systematic review that provides a comprehensive understanding of factors influencing retention in HIV care and viral suppression among LAC immigrants living with HIV in the U.S. is lacking. This systematic review used the Immigrant Health Services Utilization theoretical framework to provide an understanding of these factors. Design We searched for peer-reviewed publications in MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, and ASSIA, from January 1996 to June 2020. Results A total of 17 qualitative (n = 10) and quantitative (n = 7) studies were included in the review. The most commonly reported general and immigrant-specific factors appearing in studies were undocumented immigration status, HIV stigma, homophobia, cultural norms, values and beliefs, family and social support, language barriers, structure, complexity and quality of the U.S. healthcare delivery system, and patient-provider relationship. Conclusion These findings highlight the importance of considering immigrant-specific factors along with general factors to improve the provision of HIV care services and HIV care outcomes among LAC immigrant populations.

Over the past several years, in both clinical and academic medicine, there seems to be a growing consensus that racial/ethnic health inequities result from social, economic and political determinants of health rather than from nonexistent biological markers of race. Simply put, racism is the root cause of inequity, not race. Yet, methods of teaching and practicing medicine have not kept pace with this truth, and many learners and practitioners continue to extrapolate a biological underpinning for race. To achieve systemic change that moves us toward racially/ethnically equitable health outcomes, it is imperative that medical academia implement policies that explicitly hold us accountable to maintain a clear understanding of race as a socio-political construct so that we can conduct research, disseminate scholarly work, teach, and practice clinically with more clarity about race and racism. This short commentary proposes the use of a socioecological framework to help individuals, leadership teams, and institutions consider the implementation of various strategies for interpersonal, community-level, and broad institutional policy changes. This proposed model includes examples of how to address race and racism in academic medicine across different spheres, but also draws attention to the complex interplay across these levels. The model is not intended to be prescriptive, but rather encourages adaptation according to existing institutional differences. This model can be used as a tool to refresh how academic medicine addresses race and, more importantly, normalizes conversations about racism and equity across all framework levels.

The Future of Nursing 2020-2030 report identifies coalitions as a driving force for advancing health equity. Five coalitions provided insight into their accomplishments, lessons learned, and role in advancing health equity. The exemplar coalitions included Latinx Advocacy Team and Interdisciplinary Network for COVID-19, Black Coalition Against COVID, Camden Coalition, National Coalition of Ethnic Minority Nurse Associations, and The Future of Nursing: Campaign for Action. While all exemplar coalitions, credited relationship building and partnerships to their success, they used unique strategies for striving to meet their populations' needs, whether the needs arose from COVID-19, racial and/or ethnic disparities, socioeconomic disparities, or other barriers to health. Research and policy implications for coalitions are discussed. Nurses play a critical role in every highlighted coalition and in the national effort to make health and health care more equitable.

BACKGROUND: Canada has a low incidence of TB, although certain groups are disproportionately affected.OBJECTIVE: To describe and compare the epidemiology, trends and characteristics of TB in Quebec, Canada, among all patients reported during 1993–2018.METHODS: Demographics and risk factors were compared for the three groups accounting for most TB diagnoses reported in Quebec (foreign-born, Canadian-born non-Indigenous and Inuit). Average annual incidence and incidence rate ratios (IRRs) were estimated and compared using Poisson regression.RESULTS: Of 6,941 persons with a first episode of TB, 4,077 (59%) were foreign-born, 2,314 (33%) were Canadian-born non-Indigenous and 389 (6%) were Inuit. The average annual incidence for foreign-born, Canadian-born non-Indigenous and Inuit was respectively 17.0, 1.4 and 137.1 per 100,000 population. Compared to Canadian-born non-Indigenous, the IRR for foreign-born and Inuit was respectively 12.3 (95% CI 11.6–12.9) and 98.7 (95% CI 88.6–109.9). There was evidence of community transmission among the Inuit, with more than 80% of patients having a TB contact (2012–2018 data) and 65% (251/389) of diagnoses in those aged CONCLUSION: Although TB rates among the Canadian-born non-Indigenous are extremely low, there are persistent and distinct TB epidemics among the foreign-born and Inuit. Tailored approaches to TB prevention and care are needed to address TB among high-risk populations in low TB incidence settings.

To review the current literature regarding the health disparities in the prevalence, diagnosis, and management of pediatric food allergy and discuss possible interventions.Literature search of PubMed and Google Scholar databases regarding pediatric food allergy and health disparities.Original research articles, reviews, and guidelines on health disparities in pediatric food allergy were included in this review.The overall prevalence of food allergy appears to be increasing and disproportionately affecting minority groups. Racial and socioeconomic disparities are evident across all aspects of food allergy care: diagnosis, prevention, acute management (eg, access to epinephrine autoinjectors, visits to emergency department), and long-term management (eg, oral immunotherapy). Children of minority populations and those of low socioeconomic status are at a greater risk of food insecurity, which is further exacerbated by the high cost of allergen-free foods and limited support from food assistance programs.Racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic disparities in food allergy among children in the United States are evident and negatively affect the outcomes of children with food allergies. Active efforts to decrease racial and socioeconomic disparities, through education, research, and advocacy, will be important to help improve health outcomes in food allergy for all children, regardless of their race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status.

For more than a century, substantial racial and ethnic inequities in perinatal health outcomes have persisted despite technical clinical advances and changes in public health practice that lowered the overall incidence of morbidity. Race is a social construct and not an inherent biologic or genetic reality; therefore, racial differences in health outcomes represent the consequences of structural racism or the inequitable distribution of opportunities for health along racialized lines. Clinicians and scientists in obstetrics and gynecology have a responsibility to work to eliminate health inequities for Black, Brown, and Indigenous birthing people, and fulfilling this responsibility requires actionable evidence from high-quality research. To generate this actionable evidence, the research community must realign paradigms, praxis, and infrastructure with an eye directed toward reproductive justice and antiracism. This special report offers a set of key recommendations as a roadmap to transform perinatal health research to achieve health equity. The recommendations are based on expert opinion and evidence presented at the State of the Science Research Symposium at the 41st Annual Pregnancy Meeting of the Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine in 2021. Recommendations fall into 3 broad categories-changing research paradigms, reforming research praxis, and transforming research infrastructure-and are grounded in a historic foundation of the advances and shortcomings of clinical, public health, and sociologic scholarship in health equity. Changing the research paradigm requires leveraging a multidisciplinary perspective on structural racism; promoting mechanistic research that identifies the biologic pathways perturbed by structural racism; and utilizing conceptual models that account for racism as a factor in adverse perinatal outcomes. Changing praxis approaches to promote and engage multidisciplinary teams and to develop standardized guidelines for data collection will ensure that paradigm shifts center the historically marginalized voices of Black, Brown, and Indigenous birthing people. Finally, infrastructure changes that embed community-centered approaches are required to make shifts in paradigm and praxis possible. Institutional policies that break down silos and support true community partnership, and also the alignment of institutional, funding, and academic publishing objectives with strategic priorities for perinatal health equity, are paramount. Achieving health equity requires shifting the structures that support the ecosystem of racism that Black, Brown, and Indigenous birthing people must navigate before, during, and after childbearing. These structures extend beyond the healthcare system in which clinicians operate day-to-day, but they cannot be excluded from research endeavors to create the actionable evidence needed to achieve perinatal health equity.

Resumo O objetivo deste artigo é caracterizar a violência física por parceiro íntimo sofrida por mulheres adultas atendidas nos serviços públicos de urgência e emergência do Brasil. Estudo transversal utilizando dados do VIVA Inquérito 2017. Foram calculados as frequências e os intervalos de confiança das características da vítima, da violência e do agressor. As associações das características foram identificadas por meio da análise de correspondência simples (ACS). A maioria das mulheres atendidas se autodeclarou da raça/cor da pele negra (70,2%) e foi vítima de agressor do sexo masculino (96,3%). A maioria das violências ocorreu em residência (71,1%) por meio de força corporal (74,1%). Na ACS, destaca-se a associação entre a faixa etária de 40 a 59 anos, escolaridade de até 08 anos de estudo, consumo de álcool pela vítima e violência por meio de armas (perfil 2); e a associação da faixa etária de 18 a 24 anos, raça/cor da pele negra, ausência de atividade remunerada, agressão em via pública e lesões de maior gravidade (perfil 4). Existem diferentes perfis de VPI para mulheres em diferentes contextos. O enfrentamento à VPI necessita de Políticas Públicas que considerem essas diferenças na construção de ações que foquem as mulheres e os perpetradores da violência. Abstract This article aims to characterize physical violence by an intimate partner suffered by adult women treated in public urgency and emergency services in Brazil. This is a cross-sectional study using data from the VIVA Survey 2017. The proportions and 95% confidence intervals of the characteristics of the victim, violence, and perpetrator were calculated. The associations of characteristics were identified through Simple Correspondence Analysis (SCA). More than half of the assisted women self-declared their race/skin color to be black (70.2%) and were the victim of a male perpetrator (96.3%). Most violence occurred at home (71.1%) through physical force (74.1%). In the SCA, an association was found among the variables of age group, between 40 and 59 years; level of education, up to 08 years of study; alcohol consumption by the victim; and violence by weapons (Profile 2). An association was also found among the variables of age group, between 18 and 24 years; black race/skin color; lack of paid work; aggression on public places; and more serious injuries (Profile 4). There are different intimate partner violence (IPV) profiles for women in different contexts. Confronting IPV requires Public Policies that consider these differences in the construction of actions that focus on women and perpetrators of violence.

The devolution of public services from central to local government can increase sensitivity to local population needs but might also reduce the expertise and resources available. Little evidence is available on the impact of devolution on population health. We evaluated the effect of devolution affecting health services and wider determinants of health on life expectancy in Greater Manchester, England.We estimated changes in life expectancy in Greater Manchester relative to a control group from the rest of England (excluding London), using a generalised synthetic control method. Using local district-level data collected between Jan 1, 2006 and Dec 31, 2019, we estimated the effect of devolution on the whole population and stratified by sex, district, income deprivation, and baseline life expectancy.After devolution, from November, 2014, life expectancy in Greater Manchester was 0·196 years (95% CI 0·182-0·210) higher than expected when compared with the synthetic control group with similar pre-devolution trends. Life expectancy was protected from the decline observed in comparable areas in the 2 years after devolution and increased in the longer term. Increases in life expectancy were observed in eight of ten local authorities, were larger among men than women (0·338 years [0·315-0·362] for men; 0·057 years [0·040-0·074] for women), and were larger in areas with high income deprivation (0·390 years [0·369-0·412]) and lower life expectancy before devolution (0·291 years [0·271-0·311]).Greater Manchester had better life expectancy than expected after devolution. The benefits of devolution were apparent in the areas with the highest income deprivation and lowest life expectancy, suggesting a narrowing of inequalities. Improvements were likely to be due to a coordinated devolution across sectors, affecting wider determinants of health and the organisation of care services.The Health Foundation and the National Institute for Health and Care Research.

Fatty liver disease (FLD) is a leading cause of chronic liver disease (CLD) globally, and vulnerable populations are disproportionately affected. Prior studies have suggested racial/ethnic differences in FLD prevalence and severity; however, these studies often excluded Asian Americans. This study aims to evaluate racial/ethnic differences in the prevalence of, and predictors associated with steatohepatitis, advanced fibrosis, and fibrosis progression over time within a diverse population. Using descriptive analyses and multivariable modeling, we performed a longitudinal evaluation of 648 patients with histologic evidence of FLD (steatosis or steatohepatitis) from August 2009 to February 2020 within San Francisco's safety-net health care system. Overall demographics were median age of 53 years, 54% male, and 38% Asian (40% Hispanic, 14% White). On histology, 61% had steatohepatitis and 30% had advanced fibrosis (≥F3). The comparison between steatosis and steatohepatitis groups showed differences in sex, race/ethnicity, metabolic risk factors, and co-existing CLD (predominantly viral hepatitis); patients with steatosis were more likely to be Asian (50%), and those with steatohepatitis were more likely to be Hispanic (51%). On multivariable modeling, while Asian race (vs. non-Asian) was not associated with steatohepatitis or advanced fibrosis when models included all relevant clinical predictors, Asian race was associated with higher relative risk of fibrosis progression as defined by change in Fibrosis-4 category over time (relative risk ratio = 1.9; p = 0.047). Conclusion: In this vulnerable population with a large proportion of Asian Americans, Asian race was associated with progression of fibrosis. Given the relative paucity of data in this high-risk group, future studies should confirm these findings.

The scarcity of bilingual psychiatrists, as well as appropriate mental health services for populations with limited English proficiency, has led to inequitable health outcomes. A fellowship program was developed, which draws from a clinical model staffed by bilingual (Spanish-English) professionals from racial-ethnic minority groups, to address access to care and the structural determinants of health. This new Hispanic Psychiatry Fellowship focuses on health inequality and racism in policy and leadership, clinical care for Spanish-speaking patients, cultural psychiatry, recovery, forensics, substance use, and education. This column describes the program's development, first 2 years of implementation, and feasibility indicators for use in creating similar programs.

Breast cancer is the most common noncutaneous malignancy affecting women in the United States, with245,000 cases diagnosed annually. Breast cancer mortality rates have continued to trend down in the past three decades, yet racial/ethnic disparities persist, with the worst mortality rates seen in Black women. Of note, when compared by race, this downward trend is also trailing in Black women. Survival after breast cancer is mainly driven by factors related to early detection and effective therapy. These factors can be grouped into "biological" such as age, genetic mutations, tumor characteristics; and "social" such as education, income, access to care. There have been studies attributing racial disparities solely to biological factors, and there are those attributing the disparities to social factors alone. Although the exact mechanism is unclear, a relationship between both factors as relates to racial disparities in breast cancer outcomes has been demonstrated. In this report, we review factors contributing to the increased morbidity and mortality for breast cancer in Black women and explore sociological relationships. Facing the worst poverty rates compared with other races, Black women are inevitably more likely to be uninsured, have limited access to quality education, and have fewer financial resources. The goal of this review was to elucidate the complex interplay between biological and social factors contributing to racial disparities in breast cancer outcomes. We conclude by emphasizing the need for interventions made at both local and national levels.

Objective Previous research has found persistent socioeconomic inequalities in health outcomes at the national level, with different patterns after the economic crisis. However, inequalities in urban areas are also important. This study analyses socioeconomic inequalities in self-assessed health and mental health in the city of Barcelona. Method Repeated cross-sectional design using quinquennial data from the Barcelona Health Surveys carried out in 2001, 2006, 2011 and 2016 for the population older than 22 years. Robust Poisson regressions models were used to compute socioeconomic gradients and relative (RII) and slope indexes of inequality (SII) by occupational social class, with stratification by sex. RII and SII were also obtained with further adjustment by employment situation. Results A consistent socioeconomic gradient was found for all years except for 2011. Relative and absolute inequalities followed a V-shape, showing a drop during the economic crisis but widening thereafter to recover pre-crisis figures for self-assessed health and widening for mental health, in both relative and absolute terms in 2016. Adjustment for employment situation reduces inequalities but a large part of these inequalities remains, with variability across years. Conclusions The lasting effects of the 2008 economic crisis and the austerity programmes imposed since then may have contributed to the persistence of socioeconomic inequalities in self-assessed health and the widening of those for mental health.

The objective is to examine the ramifications of adolescent personal and vicarious police stops for positive future orientation, among all adolescents and by race/ethnicity and sex subgroups, and to assess how features of police stops-including frequency, intrusiveness, resultant stigma, and resultant traumatic stress response-are associated with positive future orientation.We used data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 3,437), a national sample of at-risk urban-born youth, and a series of ordinary least squares regression models that account for observed nonrandom selection into police stops to examine the relationship between adolescent police stops and positive future orientation.Three key findings emerged. First, personal and vicarious police stops, compared to no police stops, are negatively associated with positive future orientation among adolescents. Second, associations are largest among Black and Hispanic girls. Third, any exposure to police stops, regardless of features of the stops (including frequency, intrusiveness, resultant stigma, and resultant traumatic stress response), is negatively associated with positive future orientation.Given that positive future orientation is linked to mental and physical health throughout the life course, the findings suggest both personal and vicarious police stops among adolescents may increase health inequality in the United States.

Objectives. To examine racial/ethnic disparities in COVID-19 outcomes between Hispanics and Whites across 27 US jurisdictions whose health departments are members of the Big Cities Health Coalition (BCHC). Methods. Using surveillance data from the BCHC COVID-19 dashboard as of mid-June 2021, we computed crude incidence, age-adjusted hospitalization and mortality, and full vaccination coverage rates for Hispanics and Whites by city. We estimated relative and absolute disparities cumulatively and for 2020 and 2021 and explored associations between city-level social vulnerability and the magnitude of disparities. Results. In most of the cities with available COVID-19 incidence data, rates among Hispanics were 2.2 to 6.7 times higher than those among Whites. In all cities, Hispanics had higher age-adjusted hospitalization (1.5–8.6 times as high) and mortality (1.4–6.2 times as high) rates. Hispanics had lower vaccination coverage in all but 1 city. Disparities in incidence and hospitalizations narrowed in 2021, whereas disparities in mortality remained similar. Disparities in incidence, hospitalization, mortality, and vaccination rates were wider in cities with lower social vulnerability. Conclusions. A deeper exploration of racial/ethnic disparities in COVID-19 outcomes is essential to understand and prevent disparities among marginalized communities. (Am J Public Health. 2022;112(7): 1034–1044. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2022.306809 )

Objectives. To assess linkages of patient data from a health care system in the southeastern United States to microdata from the American Community Survey (ACS) with the goal of better understanding health disparities and social determinants of health in the population. Methods. Once a data use agreement was in place, a stratified random sample of approximately 200 000 was drawn of patients aged 25 to 74 years with at least 2 visits between January 1, 2016, and December 31, 2019. Information from the sampled electronic health records (EHRs) was transferred securely to the Census Bureau, put through the Census Person Identification Validation System to assign Protected Identification Keys (PIKs) as unique identifiers wherever possible. EHRs with PIKs assigned were then linked to 2001–2017 ACS records with a PIK. Results. PIKs were assigned to 94% of the sampled patients. Of patients with PIKs, 15.5% matched to persons sampled in the ACS. Conclusions. Linking data from EHRs to ACS records is feasible and, with adjustments for differential coverage, will advance understanding of social determinants and enhance the ability of integrated delivery systems to reflect and affect the health of the populations served. (Am J Public Health. 2022;112(6):923–930. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2022.306783 )

If we considered them as separate countries, the per capita COVID-19 cases in North Dakota would make the state one of the two countries in the world with the highest number of COVID-19 cases;by contrast, Hawaii's case rate positions it in the range of about 85th on the global list of countries with COVID-19.2 These differences will, and undoubtedly should, occasion substantial consideration of the factors, both preexisting and concurrent with the pandemic, that brought about these differences. HEALTH HETEROGENEITY By way of example, in a review of trends in the US burden of disease across states between 1990 and 2016, Mokdad et al. found, consistent with previous analyses, substantial variability across states in a range of health indicators.3 There was a 6.6-year difference in life expectancy at birth in 2016 between the state with the highest (Hawaii) versus the lowest (Mississippi) life expectancy. [...]focusing on five leading causes of death, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention showed that improving all states to the levels of the healthiest states could annually prevent more than 90 000 cases of premature heart disease, 84000 cases of cancer, 28000 cases of chronic lower respiratory disease, 16 000 cases of stroke, and 36000 cases of unintentional injury deaths.6 A concrete example of how interstate variability in the forces that generate health operate is offered in the article by Baugher et al. in the April issue of AJPH.7 The authors focused on the HIV epidemic and on the factors that may be associated with reduced uptake of preexposure prophylaxis, which can protect against HIV.

Purpose The Montreal classification for Crohn’s disease includes “age at diagnosis” as a parameter but few is reported about the age at surgery. The aim of this study is to evaluate the short- and long-term differences in the postoperative surgical outcome and disease behaviour, according to the age at the first surgery. Methods Patients consecutively operated for abdominal Crohn’s disease during the period 1986–2012 at our centre were systematically analysed according to their age at first surgery. In our retrospective cohort, the age at first surgery ranged from 13 to 83 years, and patients were arbitrarily divided into four groups: ≤ 19 (G1), 20–39 (G2), 40–59 (G3) and ≥ 60 (G4) years old. Results In total, 1051 patients were included with a median follow-up time of 232 months. The four groups exhibited statistically significant differences in age at diagnosis, smoke habit, time between diagnosis and surgery, disease location and behaviour, history of perianal fistula or abscess, severe malnutrition requiring total parental nutrition before surgery, type of surgery, total length of resected bowel, median duration of hospitalization, incidence of abdominal recurrences and number of surgical recurrences. G1 displays an inverse linear trend with time in the severity of clinical characteristics when compared to G4 groups. On the contrary, the incidence of short-term complications, types of abdominal recurrence and presence of concomitant perianal disease did not vary among groups. In addition, at multivariate analysis, the age at surgery and the disease location were the only independent risk factors for abdominal surgical recurrence. Conclusion Despite first surgery is extremely more frequent between 20 and 59 years, patients from G1 and G4 groups showed clinical differences and peculiarities when compared to the other age groups. The most indolent CD behaviour and occurrence of surgical recurrence was observed in patients having their first abdominal surgery in the elderly, while patients operated before the age of 19 experienced a more aggressive disease course.

The authors identified tumor, treatment, and patient characteristics that may contribute to differences in breast cancer (BC) mortality by race, rurality, and area-level socioeconomic status (SES) among women diagnosed with stage IIIB-IV BC in Georgia.Using the Georgia Cancer Registry, 3084 patients with stage IIIB-IV primary BC (2013-2017) were identified. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to calculate the hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) comparing mortality among non-Hispanic Black (NHB) versus non-Hispanic White (NHW), residents of rural versus urban neighborhoods, and residents of low- versus high-SES neighborhoods by tumor, treatment, and patient characteristics. The mediating effects of specific characteristics on the association between race and BC mortality were estimated.Among the study population, 41% were NHB, 21% resided in rural counties, and 72% resided in low SES neighborhoods. The authors observed mortality disparities by race (HR, 1.27; 95% CI, 1.13, 1.41) and rurality (HR, 1.14; 95% CI, 1.00, 1.30), but not by SES (HR, 1.04; 95% CI, 0.91, 1.19). In the stratified analyses, racial disparities were the most pronounced among women with HER2 overexpressing tumors (HR, 2.30; 95% CI, 1.53, 3.45). Residing in a rural county was associated with increased mortality among uninsured women (HR, 2.25; 95% CI, 1.31, 3.86), and the most pronounced SES disparities were among younger women (40 years: HR, 1.46; 95% CI, 0.88, 2.42).There is considerable variation in racial, regional, and socioeconomic disparities in late-stage BC mortality by tumor, treatment, and patient characteristics.

Background Understanding the impact of patient and tumor characteristics on lung cancer survival can help build personalized prognostic models and identify health disparities. Methods We identified 557 555 patients aged 25 years and older diagnosed with lung or bronchus carcinoma from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results database, 2000-2016. We estimated hazard ratios (HR) for demographic (sex, age, race and ethnicity), tumor (stage, histology, year of diagnosis), and geographic characteristics (census tract–level urbanicity, socioeconomic status [SES]), as well as selected interactions, on the rate of lung cancer–specific death using multivariable proportional hazards models. Results Women had a higher survival (lower hazard) of lung cancer–specific death than men (HR = 0.83, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.82 to 0.83). Hazards differed by race and ethnicity. Regional (HR = 2.41, 95% CI = 2.37 to 2.44) and distant (HR = 6.61, 95% CI = 6.53 to 6.69) tumors were associated with a lower survival (higher hazard) than localized tumors. Small cell tumors were associated with a lower survival (HR = 1.19, 95% CI = 1.18 to 1.20) than non–small cell tumors. Patients diagnosed after 2009 had lower hazards (HR = 0.86, 95% CI = 085 to 0.86) than those diagnosed 2000-2009. Lung cancer–specific survival did not depend on urbanicity after adjusting for census tract–level SES, but survival decreased with decreasing census tract–level SES. Differences in survival between non-Hispanic Black and White patients were greater for younger patients and localized tumors and increased with census tract–level SES. Differences by sex were greatest for young patients and localized tumors. Conclusions Disparities in survival after lung cancer diagnosis remain, with intersectional patterns suggesting differential access to and quality of care. Efforts are needed to ensure that high-risk groups receive guideline-concordant treatment.

This study investigates mental health inequalities by family type and gender during the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany. Using data from the German Family Panel, we compared three dimensions of mental health (i.e., self-reported stress, exhaustion, and loneliness) one year before the pandemic and in spring 2020. First, two-parent families emerged as a vulnerable group, as the levels of stress and exhaustion they reported during the pandemic converged with those experienced by single parents. Second, a gender gap emerged during this global health crisis, with women, and particularly mothers, reporting significantly worse mental health compared to men in the same family type. Our findings underline the substantive value of studying mental health inequality from a multidimensional perspective and over time. Based on these findings, we urge policy makers to consider more seriously the disproportionate burdens that families, and women in particular, have been carrying due to the pandemic both directly and indirectly.

Despite marked progress in cardiovascular disease management in the last several decades, there remain significant, persistent disparities in cardiovascular health in historically marginalized racial and ethnic groups. Here, we outline current state of health disparities in cardiovascular disease, discuss the interplay between social determinants of health, structural racism, and cardiovascular outcomes, and highlight strategies to address these issues.Across the continuum of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) prevention, there remain significant disparities in outcomes including morbidity and mortality by race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (SES). These disparities begin early in childhood (primordial prevention) and continue with a higher prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors (primary prevention), and in the uptake of evidence-based therapies (secondary prevention). These disparities are driven by social determinants of health and structural racism that disproportionately disadvantage historically marginalized populations. Structural racism and social determinants of health contribute to significant disparities in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.

French Guiana is a French overseas territory in South America, marked by poverty and inequalities. Access to different services, including healthcare, is unequal depending on where people live. Several studies showed that among adults, the most precarious individuals had greater incidences of chronic and infectious diseases. Although the median age of the population living in this territory is 25, there is no specific focus on the pediatric population although it is documented that socioeconomic inequalities have an impact on child health. The objective of this scoping review is to shed light on health challenges concerning children living in French Guiana.A literature search was performed on PubMed to identify relevant articles, and additional references were added if within the scope of this review.A total of 106 publications were reviewed. Perinatal health issues were linked to a high rate of teenage pregnancies with poor medical follow-up leading to complications such as preterm deliveries and congenital malformations and abnormalities. Infectious diseases were a significant burden with worrisome vaccination coverage figures for some bacterial infections, partly explaining a high mortality rate attributable to infectious diseases. Herbicide poisoning with paraquat was reported in children, and environment-related concerns such as wild animal attacks as well as lead and mercury exposure were reported. Some children living in remote Amerindian communities had a higher suicide rate than in mainland France, and chronic diseases such as sickle cell disease were reported to have more transfusion-related complications.Children living in French Guiana have worse pediatric health indicators in comparison with children from mainland France.

Eliminating health disparities among different segments of the US population is an overarching goal of the US Healthy People 2020 objectives.Examine changes in educational, rural-urban, and racial disparities in premature mortality during the past 10 years.Descriptive analysis of US mortality data from 2007 to 2017.Relative and absolute rural-urban, educational attainment, and Black-White disparities in premature mortality for all-cause and top 10 causes of death among persons ages 25-74 years, estimated as rate ratios and rate differences between ≤12 and ≥16 years of education, rural versus urban, and non-Hispanic Black (Black) versus non-Hispanic White (White), respectively, in 2007 and 2017.During 2007-2017, mortality rates in persons aged 25-74 years in the USA increased for several leading causes of death, especially in persons with16 years of education, rural residents, and White people. As a result, disparity in mortality between 2007 and 2017 widened on both relative and absolute scales for all-cause and for 6 of the top 10 causes of death by education and for all-cause and for 9 of the top 10 causes by rural/urban residence. In contrast, Black-White disparities narrowed for all-cause and for all 7 causes that Black people had a higher rate than White people. For all-cause mortality for example, absolute disparities in the number of deaths per 100,000 person-years between 2007 and 2017 increased from 454.0 (95%CI, 446.0-462.1) to 542.7 (535.6-549.7) for educational attainment and from 85.8 (82.8-88.8) to 140.5 (137.6-143.4) for rural versus urban; in contrast, absolute Black-White disparity decreased from 315.3 (311.0-319.7) to 221.7 (218.1-225.3).Educational and rural-urban disparities in premature mortality widened, whereas Black-White disparities narrowed in the USA between 2007 and 2017, though overall rates remained considerably higher in Black people.

Reducing health inequality and ensuring national health equity have become issues of great concern to all countries in the world. This paper based on the ordered Probit model and concentrated index decomposition method, analysed the influencing factors and evolution trend of health inequality among the elderly with high age in China from 2005 to 2017. The study found that in 2005-2017, the self-rated health distribution of the elderly with high age in China showed an obvious inverted "U" shape, with the proportion of general and relatively healthy being the largest, while the proportion of unhealthy and very healthy was lower. Lifestyle, family income, and age were the main important factors to expand health inequality. Therefore, encouraging the elderly with high age to develop good living habits and narrowing the income gap of the elderly are conducive to solving the health inequality of the elderly with high age and achieving the goals of active ageing and healthy ageing.

This study aimed to explore the socio-economic inequalities in physical activity (PA) based on domains of daily life, such as work, transport, recreation and sedentary life, among Japanese adults during the COVID-19 pandemic.This was a cross-sectional study.This study used data from the 2020 National Sport and Lifestyle Survey, conducted by the Sasakawa Sports Foundation. Data of 2,296 (1,103 women) participants were analysed. PAs were assessed using the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire. Educational level and household income were used as indicators of socio-economic status. We calculated the slope index of inequality (SII) and relative index of inequality (RII).We detected absolute and relative inequalities for household income in all PA domains, except for work-related PA. The higher the participants' income, the longer they engaged in transport- and recreation-related PA and sedentary behaviour. Recreation-related PA had a larger disparity than other domains, with SII at 20.8% (95% confidence interval [CI] -28.4 to -13.1) and RII at 0.58 (95% CI 0.47-0.71). At the educational level, each inequality was observed in work- and recreation-related PA and sedentary behaviour. The higher the participants' educational level, the longer they engaged in recreation-related PA and sedentary behaviour. However, work-related PA was longer at lower educational levels, with RII at 1.90 (95% CI 1.48-2.44). The inequality in recreation-related PA was also relatively large (SII 23.3%, 95% CI -30.9 to -15.7; RII 0.54, 95% CI 0.45-0.66).Our study revealed significant socio-economic disparities in each PA domain, particularly in recreational PA. These results suggest a widening gap because of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Black, Hispanic, and Indigenous groups have carried the burden of COVID-19 disease in comparison to non-marginalized groups within the United States. It is important to examine the factors that have led to the observed disparities in COVID-19 risk, morbidity, and mortality. We described primary health care access within large US metropolitan cities in relation to COVID-19 rate, race/ethnicity, and income level and hypothesized that observed racial/ethnic disparities in COVID-19 rates are associated with health care provider number.We accessed public city health department records for reported COVID-19 cases within 10 major metropolitan cities in the United States and also obtained publicly available racial/ethnic demographic median income and primary health care provider counts within individual zip codes. We made comparisons of COVID-19 case numbers within zip codes based on racial/ethnic and income makeup in relation to primary health care counts.Median COVID-19 rates differed by race/ethnicity and income. There was an inverse relationship between median income and COVID-19 rate within zip codes (rho: -0.515; p0.001). However, this relationship was strongest within racially/ethnically non-marginalized zip codes relative to those composed mainly of racially/ethnically marginalized populations (rho: -0.427 vs. rho: -0.175 respectively). Health care provider number within zip codes was inversely associated with the COVID-19 rate. (rho: -0.157; p0.001) However, when evaluated by stratified groups by race the association was only significant within racially/ethnically marginalized zip codes(rho: -0.229; p0.001).COVID-19 case rates were associated with racial/ethnic makeup and income status within zip codes across the United States and likewise, primary care provider access also differed by these factors. However, our study reveals that structural and systemic barriers and inequities have led to disproportionate access to health care along with other factors that require identification.These results pose a concern in terms of pandemic progression into the next year and how these structural inequities have impacted and will impact vaccine distribution.

Aims: While Marxist class analysis has strongly influenced the development of health inequality research, other aspects of Marx’s theory have received less attention. Among the most relevant of Marx’s theoretical contributions for social inequalities in health is the theory of alienation. As empirical applications of the theory of alienation are currently scarce, the purpose of this commentary is to invigorate interest in alienation theory within the field of health inequality research by demonstrating its potential to illuminate the relationship between social inequality, psycho-social affects and health outcomes. Results: Alienation theory describes how the class structure of capitalist societies creates experiences of powerlessness, estrangement and isolation. These experiences are further posited as emerging from the exploitation of labour, thus connecting social inequality to psychological wellbeing. Alienation theory is particularly compatible with psycho-social explanations of health inequalities, which similarly posits that social inequality affects health through psychological mechanisms. We argue that alienation theory contributes in three ways to health inequality research: a) by suggesting potential mechanisms and offering predictions that may be put to use in empirical research, b) by providing a potential explanation of the welfare state paradox, and c) by situating the psycho-social determinants of health within a critical analysis of the sources of social inequality in capitalist society. Conclusions: Alienation theory may provide a more textured understanding of the relationship between inequality and psycho-social health, while also foregrounding issues of class, power and exploitation that are often absent from psycho-social explanations.

Objective People living in rural areas of the United States experience greater health inequality than individuals residing in urban or suburban locations and encounter several barriers to obtaining optimal health care. Health disparities are compounded for patients with rare diseases such as hereditary angioedema (HAE), an autosomal dominant genetic disorder characterized by recurrent, severe abdominal pain and lifethreatening oropharyngeal/laryngeal swelling. The objective of this review is to explore the challenges of managing HAE patients in rural areas and suggest possible improvements for optimizing care. Data Sources PubMed was searched for articles on patient care management, treatment challenges, rural health, and HAE. Study Selections Relevant articles were selected and reviewed. Results Challenges in managing HAE in the rural setting were identified including obtaining a diagnosis of HAE, easy access to a physician with expertise in HAE, continuity of care, availability of telemedicine services, access to approved HAE therapies, patient education, and economic barriers to treatment. Ways to improve HAE patient care in rural areas include health care provider recognition of the undiagnosed HAE patient, development of individualized management plans, expansion of telemedicine, effective care at the local level, appropriate access to HAE medication, and increased awareness of patient support and advocacy groups. Conclusion For HAE patients living in rural areas, optimal care is complicated by health disparities. Given the scarcity with which these topics have been covered in the literature to date, it is intended that this article will serve as the impetus for a range of further initiatives focused on improving access to care.

OBJECTIVE: Recent studies have observed that racial or ethnic adult health disparities revealed in national data dissipate in racially integrated communities, supporting the theory that “place, not race” shapes the nature and magnitude of racial/ethnic health disparities. We test this theory among children. METHODS: In 2020, we estimated racial/ethnic childhood obesity disparities within integrated schools and between segregated schools, using statewide cross-sectional data collected in 2019 on 5th, 7th, and 9th grade students from California public schools. RESULTS: School segregation accounted for a large part of the obesity disparities between White children and children of color (Latinos, Blacks and Filipinos). In racially integrated schools, obesity disparities were much smaller than those in state-wide data, whereas racial or ethnic childhood obesity disparities were larger when comparing children in majority White schools to those attending schools with majority enrollment of children of color, except for Asians, who generally had lower obesity rates than their White peers. CONCLUSIONS: School-level racial segregation is a salient contributor to racial/ethnic childhood obesity disparities. Reducing obesity disparities may be particularly effective if place-level interventions target socioeconomically disadvantaged integrated schools and segregated schools attended primarily by children of color.