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This research endeavors to build an egalitarian social order that emphasizes human equality and eradicates all forms of discrimination based on identities created by the current social system, including race, religion, ethnicity, skin color, nationality, etc. This is done because research into issues of citizen equality within Muslim political systems is an interesting part of discourse regarding national diversity and ideological issues in governance. Using an empirical approach, this study analyzes the involvement of non-Muslims in practical politics and government in Muslim-majority areas such as Makassar. The involvement of non-Muslims in practical politics is key to the creation of a democratic system of governance. This study contributes an explanation as to why the recognition of non-Muslims' political rights must not solely be viewed in terms of theory, but also in terms of normative and practical structures, as Islam promotes democratic governance in which equality, justice, and tolerance are realized well and no political discrimination is committed against citizens. Through this, the purity of Islam can remain undistorted and the gap between the practiced reality among this Muslim-majority population and fundamental Islamic teachings can be bridged. Keywords: Muslim’s thought; political rights; non-Muslims; Makassar; الملخص يسعى هذا البحث إلى بناء نظام اجتماعي للمساواة الذى يشدد على المساواة بين البشر ويستأصل جميع أشكال التمييز على أساس الهويات التي أنشأها النظام الاجتماعي الحالي، بما في ذلك العرق والدين والعرق ولون البشرة والجنسية وما إلى ذلك. ويتم ذلك لأن البحث في قضايا تعد المساواة بين المواطنين داخل الأنظمة السياسية الإسلامية جزءا مهما من الخطاب المتعلق بالتنوع الوطني والقضايا الأيديولوجية في الحكم. باستخدام منهج تجريبي، تحلل هذه الدراسة مشاركة غير المسلمين في السياسة العملية والحكومة في المناطق ذات الأغلبية المسلمة مثل ماكاسار. إن إشراك غير المسلمين في السياسة العملية هو مفتاح إنشاء نظام حكم ديمقراطي. تسهم هذه الدراسة في تفسير لماذا يجب ألا ينظر إلى الاعتراف بالحقوق السياسية لغير المسلمين من الناحية النظرية فحسب، بل أيضا من حيث الهياكل المعيارية والعملية، حيث أن الإسلام يشجع الحكم الديمقراطي الذي تقوم فيه المساواة والعدالة والتسامح تتحقق بشكل جيد ولا يوجد تمييز سياسي ضد المواطنين. من خلال هذا، يمكن أن تظل نقاء الإسلام غير مشوهة ويمكن سد الفجوة بين الواقع الممارس بين السكان الذين تسكنهم أغلبية مسلمة والتعاليم الإسلامية الأساسية. الكلمات المفتاحية: فكر المسلم؛ الحقوق السياسية؛ غير المسلمين: ماكاسار: Abstrak Penelitian ini merupakan ikhtiar untuk membangun suatu tatanan masyarakat egaliter yang diderivasi dari suatu penegasan tentang kesetaraan manusia dan menghapus segala bentuk diskriminasi berdasarkan identitas-identitas yang diciptakan oleh sistem sosial, seperti, perbedaan ras, agama, suku, warna kulit, golongan, kebangsaan dan sebagainya. Sebab isu kesetaraan warga negara dalam sistem politik Islam menjadi kajian menarik dalam wacana menghadapi kemajemukan warga negara dan isu-isu ideologis dalam sebuah pemerintahan. Dengan menggunakan pendekatan empiris, studi ini menganalisis keterlibatan non-muslim dalam politik praktis pada pemerintahan yang mayoritas penduduknya beragama Islam seperti di Makassar. Adanya keterlibatan non-muslim dalam politik praktis menjadi kunci dalam membangun sebuah pemerintahan yang demokratis. Secara teoritis, studi ini memberikan penjelasan bahwa pengakuan terhadap hak-hak politik non-muslim tidak hanya dipahami pada tataran teoritisnya, tetapi juga pada tataran normative dan praktisnya sebab Islam yang mengusung pemerintahan demokrasi yang bertumpuk pada prinsip-prinsip persamaan, keadilan dan toleransi yang menjadi tuntutan modernitas saat ini dapat berjalan dengan baik, manakala tidak melakukan diskriminasi politik terhadap warga negaranya. Sehingga kemurnian ajaran Islam tidak mengalami distorsi, tetapi kesenjangan yang ada antara realitas masyarakat Islam dengan ide dasar ajaran Islam dapat dijembatani. Kata kunci: Peta pemikiran; hak politik; non-muslim; Makassar

The tolerant spirit of Islam has inspired Ottoman rulers to adopt policies relating to non-Muslim citizens. The leadership crisis in the Ottoman Empire and the Western interests through capitulation have changed judicial system in the empire, including the system for non-Muslims that allows them to conduct their own judiciary and provide absolute freedom of religious matters. Tanzimāt, which is expected to bring improvements to the legislation system in Ottoman Empire, has marginalized Islamic law which is only enforced in aḥwāl al-shakhṣiyyah. Sultan Abdul Hamid II tried to maintain Islamic law by codifying Western European style. Some legal codifications contain qawāid fiqhiyyah (principles of Islamic law) which are sourced from the books of the Hanafi School of jurisprudence, and some others adopt Western laws by taking a few opinions of Islamic jurisprudence. This study analyzed various literatures related to policies towards non-Muslim citizens in the Ottoman era. The study uses descriptive and qualitative methods with a content analysis approach. Broadly speaking, this study found that the Ottoman Empire had given good treatment to non-Muslim citizens. The non-Muslim citizens get various facilities from the State, including the establishment of special institutions that handle their own affairs, although at the same time they have been used by Western countries to support their interests in Ottoman Empire.

Within the politics of nationalism and nation-building, the emigration of ethnic and religious minorities, whether voluntary or involuntary, appears to be a commonly occurring practice. After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in the early twentieth century, modern Turkey still carried the legacy of a multi-ethnic, multi-religious diversity in which its Armenian, Greek and Jewish communities had official minority status based upon the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne. However, throughout the twentieth century, Turkey's non-Muslim minority populations have undergone a mass emigration experience in which thousands of their numbers have migrated to various countries around the globe. While in the 1920s the population of non-Muslims in the country was close to 3 per cent of the total, today it has dropped to less than two per thousand. This article analyses the emigration of non-Muslim people from Turkey and relates this movement to the wider context of nation-building in the country. Publisher's Version Q2 WOS:000252455800006

In this paper, first the evolution of the Western human rights standpoint and its theoretical underpinnings are traced. Next, the current internationally-approved instruments of human rights are critiqued in terms of their relevance to the needs of individuals and groups in Third World societies. Thirdly, a review of the Islamic view of human rights is attempted. Finally, the human rights situation and Muslim responses to it is examined in the contexts of Africa, Asia and Europe. Studying the human rights situation in regions where Muslims are in a majority and dominate the state, as in some African and Asian societies, and in areas where they are a minority, as in Europe, helps us arrive at a better understanding of the practical implications of the human rights package, approved by the United Nations and other related agencies, for a religious community which faces theological and philosophical difficulties in coming to terms with it. KEY WORDS: Africa, Asia, colonialism, democracy, Europe, Islamic state, non-Muslims, secularism, Sharia, women

The issue of the acknoll(ledgement and application of the religiousbeliefs and liberties for all take places among currently mostdiscussed the topics. The Western scholars have always beenattracted to the juridical an social statues of non~Muslims living inMuslim countries in the History. Today, it became a necessity in theWorld that people with different faiths live together with harmonyespecially because of the effect of the globalization. Anatolia has beenan enriching cultural and histarical centre in which different faith andcultures lived together for centuries. It involved many faith andcultures in the form of "nation" in its body in the Ottoman time. Forcenturies, Turks ruled Muslims and non-Muslims in an atmesphere oftogetherness and mutual trust and respect. Ottoman dynasty did notattempt to assimiiate non-Muslims in the melting pot of Muslims. Itassigned certain rights to non-Muslims as the requirement of the faithit cherished. The atmesphere of liberty of thought and the toleranceshown to faiths since the time of Seljuks can be interpreted as anindication that Muslim Turks had strong self-confidence and anunshakable belief and spirituality. In order to shed light into today's. problems, it is important for us and others to know how this regimebecame enable to accomplish these. This paper surveys the policy offaith by which Ottoman dynasty ruled a wide geography and differentnations with various faith in peace during 6 century., Dini inanç ve özgürlüklerin herkes için tanınması ve kullanılması, sondönemlerde üzerinde en çok yazılıp konuşulan konuların başındagelmek~edir. Özellikle, tarihte gayrimüslimlerin İslam ülkelerindekihukuki ve sosyal statüleri, batılı araştırıcıların her zaman ilgisiniçekmiştir. Bugün dünya genelinde, küreselleşmenin de etkisiyle, farklıinanç mensuplarının bir arada yaşamaları bir zorunluluk halinialmıştır. Anadolu, yüzyıllarca farklı inanç ve kültürlerin barındığı,kültürel ve tarihsel zenginiikierin beşiği olmuş bir coğrafyadır.Osmanlı döneminde de 'millet' anlayışıyla "pek- çok inanç ve kultürübünyesinde barındırmıştır. Türkler, Anadolu'da Müslümafılarla:gayrimüslimleri bir arada, karşılıklı güven ve saygıya dayalı biranlayışla asırlarca yönetmiştir. Osmanli, Müslüman olmayan halkı,Müslümanlar içinde eritme politikası gütmemiştir. Onlara birtakım·haklar tanırken de bunu kendi inancının bir gereği olduğu bilinciyleyapmıştır. Selçukludan itibaren, Ahadolu'da sağlanan fikir hürriyeti veinançlara karşı gösterilen hoşgörülü yaklaşım, Müslüman Türklerinkendine güvenine, bu da güçlü bir imana ve manevi yapıya .sahipolduklarına işaret etmektedir. Bu yönetimin nasıl mümkün olduğu vebugüne nasıl işık tuttuğu konusu bugün bizler ve tüm dünya içinönem arz etmektedir. Bu makale, Osmanlı Devleti'nin altı yüz yıl gibiuzun bir süre, çok geniş bir coğrafyaya hakim olmasında ve farklı dinmensuplarını barış içinde yönetmesinde önemli etkileri olan inançpolitikasını ele almaktadır.