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Purpose – Both anecdotal and empirical evidence indicates that even well-intentioned eyewitnesses can make inaccurate identifications resulting in erroneous prosecutions and wrongful convictions. The risk of erroneous identification increases when witnesses are asked to identify people belonging to other races. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the policies which enhance the likelihood of obtaining accurate identifications from eyewitnesses. Legal implications especially relevant to police administrators in the USA including constitutional considerations and risks of civil liability are integrated with the empirical record and used to make policy recommendations likely to decrease legal and public relations entanglements for police. Design/methodology/approach – This paper integrates an empirical literature review with legal research and analysis in order to advocate for prudent policy reforms. Findings – Both the empirical record and current US law indicate that police administrators would be well-advised to require serial, double-blind identification procedures where witnesses are routinely warned about the perpetrator’s potential absence and required to give immediate certainty statements. Officers should be prohibited from using the same suspect with the same witness more than once and should be provided with training on the inherent dangers of inaccuracy associated with cross-racial identifications. Originality/value – While a significant amount of material concerning eyewitness identification exists, most of the existing work does not integrate legal realities, especially those concerning civil liability, within the framework of the eyewitness identification literature. Nor does past work contextualize the need for reform with the emerging racially charged atmosphere in which US police must currently work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine national survey data of police agencies in the USA to explore the current state of crime analysis integration to patrol crime reduction work. Design/methodology/approach – The data examined in this paper are from a national quantitative survey which sought to understand how crime analysis results are used by officers as well as higher ranking personnel in the patrol division and what types of strategies are implemented using crime analysis. Findings – The findings show that the routine use of crime analysis is not well integrated. Despite the low integration, however, some differences were found. Management uses crime analysis the most overall, but officers and first-line supervisors use tactical crime analysis more routinely than management, where management personnel use evaluation most routinely. Tactical crime analysis is used most often for directed patrol, strategic for both directed patrol and general information, and evaluation for both general information and crime prevention. Analysis of using analysis proactively shows that agencies use tactical crime analysis most proactively, followed by the strategic crime analysis, then evaluation. Research limitations/implications – The study relies on self-report surveys, so the results may suffer from some of the general limitations of self-reports. Also, the study resulted in a lower response rate than surveys of police agencies typically achieve. Although responding and non-responding agencies were comparable in terms of population size, number of officers, and region of the country, the response rate was about 55 percent. However, it is a possibility based on the analysis results that non-responses may reflect a disinterest in the topic or the lack of integration of crime analysis. Originality/value – This is the first national survey that focussed specifically on crime analysis integration in patrol work for crime reduction. The value of the results presented here are in the description of the current state of crime analysis integration in the USA which has not been investigated in such depth before and the identifications of gaps in both research in practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to determine the prevalence of the use of discipline matrices across large US police departments, as well as to compare the structure and content of such matrices. Design/methodology/approach – The study employs a two phase approach. Phase I consisted of a brief online survey of a stratified, random sample of police departments with 100 or more sworn police officers and asked about whether or not the agency employed a discipline matrix. Phase II consisted of requesting a copy of the matrix and corresponding materials from all agencies who indicated they employed a matrix, and analyzing the content of those matrices. Findings – In total, 37 percent of responding agencies said they are using or are planning a discipline matrix, and the authors obtained a matrix from 32 police departments. The structure of the matrices and recommended discipline varied widely across these departments, indicating a lack of consensus on the development of this relatively new accountability tool. Research limitations/implications – The survey focussed on large police departments and the response rate was somewhat lower than other past national surveys. Practical implications – Discipline matrices are employed to a greater extent than is implied by the current research literature. The lack of consensus and variability in policies around matrices indicates a need for more research which could contribute toward the formation of a model policy in this regard. Originality/value – To date the prevalence of discipline matrices across US police departments was unknown, and very little was known about how they were structured or what comprised their content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose -- The purpose of this paper is to propose an original model of stress and coping as a complex interactive process between an individual and his or her environment. Design/methodology/approach -- A preliminary test of the model is conducted using data from a meta-analysis of perceived occupational stress among police officers. Collapsing correlates into predictor domains that mirror the proposed model of stress and coping allowed for a preliminary analysis of some of the constructs in the proposed model. Findings -- The findings suggest that each domain contributes to the perception of stress and that knowledge in this area might best be advanced by recognizing the importance of each in shaping an interactive process of stress and coping rather than attempting to rank individual correlates. Research limitations/implications -- The data do not provide definitive conclusions that personal characteristics or job characteristics, for example, are more important than others in shaping stress perception among police officers. Clearly, these findings suggest that questions about what is most important in shaping police stress have remained unanswered because the variables of interest make equally important contributions to a complex process. Originality/value -- Adopting the proposed integrative model of stress and coping may help researchers move beyond the flawed conceptualization of perceived stress among police officers as a simple operational/organizational dichotomy, allowing for a more rich understanding of stress and coping as a complex process. Paper type Conceptual paper [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – Since 1987, the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) has periodically collected data from police agencies in the USA and disseminated these data as the Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS) series. The purpose of this paper is to outline LEMAS's impact on criminal justice scholarship by describing the nexus between policing scholarship and LEMAS, and by analyzing the LEMAS constructs and variables used by researchers in refereed journal articles. Design/methodology/approach – A systematic review of the literature is undertaken to better comprehend how scholars use LEMAS variables and constructs. In total, 114 peer-reviewed journal articles were analyzed to parcel out variables and constructs derived from LEMAS data. Findings – The paper's analysis reveals that LEMAS is the second-most used BJS data series and the majority of authors use LEMAS to measure elements of organizational structure but not organizational behaviors, outcomes, or outputs. Originality/value – The study is the first to systematically identify all peer-reviewed journal articles that utilize LEMAS data. Police organizational research is unique in the fact that most authors agree on the operationalization of variables and constructs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore risk and protective factors associated with suicidal ideation among law enforcement personnel. Design/methodology/approach – The methodology employed is based on the "Best Evidence Synthesis" approach, whereby researchers systematically examine and integrate the most empirically sound available research on the topic under investigation. Findings – Results of studies showed that the interaction of multiple risk factors had a cumulative effect in increasing the risk for suicidal ideation. In total, five prominent aspects of policing were associated with risk for suicidal ideation: organizational stress; critical incident trauma; shift work; relationship problems; and alcohol use and abuse. Studies also indicated that protective factors and preventative measures had stress-buffering effects which decreased the impact of police stressors. Research limitations/implications – The model is limited because few studies have employed methodologically-sound research designs to test risk and protective factors related to police suicide. This conceptual overview may facilitate theory development and provide directions for future research. Practical implications – Law enforcement agencies which implement programs that assist police personnel in developing active coping styles, identify and access available social support systems, as well as utilize community-based services may decrease risk for suicidal ideation. This review provides practical applications for law enforcement training, education, and program development. Originality/value – The paper represents the most recent review of risk and protective factors related to suicidal ideation among police personnel. This integration of research provides police practitioners with an evidence-based ecological framework that can be applied universally in police management settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine a police promotional process, in order to determine factors important for a sergeant to be promoted to lieutenant. To do this, written scores, assessment scores, and other demographic variables are used, thus providing a unique look into what it truly takes to promote to an important managerial rank in this large Texas metropolitan police department (LTMPD). Design/methodology/approach – This is an exploratory study utilizing data collected from departmental databases. The original data set was accessed through public information laws, and compiled by the lead author, a 21-year police veteran and participant in this promotional process. Findings – Significant findings were both expected and unexpected. Of no surprise were the findings that an officer's written score and assessment score significantly affected the likelihood of promotion. Unexpected were past behavior patterns, age, and number of times tested significantly affected both assessment center performance score and promotion. Originality/value – This paper examines the promotional process within an LTMPD. It illustrates how promotions are made in a department that relies heavily on assessment center outcomes to decide who is promoted. Up to now, police promotional processes have received little attention. This current research is an exploratory analysis which seeks to fill the gap by examining the process by which police lieutenants are chosen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The majority of the previous research on hot spots policing focuses on a single set of relatively small selected experimental areas. However, given limited resources, most law enforcement agencies dispatch hot spots intervention units to several areas on a rotation basis. The purpose of this paper is to examine policing activities in hot spots to determine if the various types of crimes were affected when deployment was applied on a rotation basis. Design/methodology/approach – This study uses data from the Dallas Police Department. The differential influence of police activities, including stops, citations, and arrests, are observed against a number of aggregate crime measures (i.e. violent, property, nuisance offenses, and total index crimes). The impact of police activities have been observed for their immediate and lagged effects during the following week to measure residual deterrence effects. Findings – It was found that the DPD's Disruption Unit's hot spots policing immediately affected violent crimes, nuisance offenses, and total index crimes, while there were no residual effects of hot spots policing. The Disruption Unit was engaged in policing activities that include motor vehicle and pedestrian stops, issuing citations, and making arrests. Among these activities, the number of police stops was the most significant factor for the reduction in violent crime and nuisance offenses. Research limitations/implications – The researchers use a patrol sector as a unit of analysis in order to compare the influence of various types of police activities on crime across a broader area. Future research should consider using an intermediate geographic unit of analysis (e.g. patrol beat). Originality/Value – The paper examines the differential influence of policing activities on different types of crime around hot spots when deployment was applied on a rotation basis. Both immediate and lagged effects were investigated to find residual deterrence effects of hot spots policing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between global and specific attitudes of unfair police treatment towards Mexican Americans and how attitudes towards the police vary with socio-demographic characteristics, victim status, linguistic barriers, group consciousness and socially disorganized contexts. Design/methodology/approach – Data from the 2006 National Latino Survey, which is a representative random sample of 1,815 self-identified persons of Mexican-origin born in the USA were used to investigate three research questions: What is the prevalence in which Mexican-Americans claim to be treated unfairly by the police?; What is the prevalence in which Mexican-Americans perceive unfair treatment toward their ethnic group?; and Do cultural factors and/or heightened group consciousness and identity contribute to Mexican-Americans perceptions of either specific or more generalized unfair police treatment? A structural equation model was developed to explore the relationship between global and specific measures of unfair police treatment and variables measuring socio-demographic and linguistic characteristics, as well as socially disorganized contexts, group consciousness and identity. Findings – Mexican-Americans residing in socially disorganized contexts are significantly more likely to have positive global assessments of the police. The relationship between both social disorganization and specific and global attitudes was statistically significant. Individuals who have a strong sense of linked fate, possess a shared sense of common purpose and interest, and identify strongly with their ethnic group are significantly more likely to perceive that the police treat their group unfairly. Research limitations/implications – The current investigation is limited by the nature of the data, which is based wholly on self-report. In addition, while the frequency and nature of police contact plays a role in influencing negative perceptions of police encounters, it was not possible to assess those influences here. Finally, the current analysis is limited by the cross-sectional nature of the data and no inferences regarding causality can be made. Practical implications – This study has implications for the legitimacy of the criminal justice system and will help criminal justice actors understand the broader implications of police-citizen interactions. Social implications – The paper shows how social interactions are affected by group membership. Originality/value – No study to date explores the relationship between group-based identity, group consciousness and perceptions of unfair treatment by the police. These studies are usually limited to the political science literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to compare two conflicting theoretical frameworks that predict or explain police decision making. Klinger's ecological theory proposes that an increased level of serious crimes in an area decreases the likelihood an officer will deal with order-maintenance issues, while Fagan and Davies suggest an increase in low-level disorder will increase order maintenance behavior of police officers. Design/methodology/approach – Using a vignette research design, the authors examines factors that may contribute to police officers' decision to make a traffic stop in four jurisdictions with varying levels of serious crime. Ordered logistic regression with robust standard errors was used in the analysis. Findings – Analysis of the findings demonstrates that officers who work in higher crime areas are less likely to stop a vehicle, as described in the vignettes. Additional predictors of police decision to stop include vehicles driven by teenaged drivers and drivers who were speeding in a vehicle. Research limitations/implications – The current research is limited to an adequate but fairly small sample size (n=204), and research design that examines hypothetical scenarios of police decision making. Further data collection across different agencies with more officers and more variation in crime levels is necessary to extend the current findings. Originality/value – This paper adds to the literature in two primary ways. First, it compares two competing theoretical claims to examine a highly discretionary form of police behavior and second, it uniquely uses a vignette research design to tap into an area of police behavior that is difficult to study (e.g. the decision not to stop). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to provide an empirical examination of the characteristics of Indian reservation police agencies at the start of the twenty-first century. Design/methodology/approach - The paper uses national data on tribal police agencies from the 2000 Census of State and Local Law Enforcement Agencies and from the 2002 Census of Tribal Justice Agencies (both conducted by the Bureau of Justice Statistics). Findings - The analysis presented documents both common and distinctive trends in Indian Country policing, and compares tribal police agencies on reservations with non-Indian police organizations generally. Originality/value - The paper provides an empirical reference point for assessing future changes and developments in this mostly undocumented form of US policing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - To provide readers with some basic information about the use of impact munitions in modern American police work. Design/methodology/approach - The paper identifies various sorts of impact munitions and places key findings from previous studies of these devices in a broader historical context of police force options. Findings - Impact munitions are an increasingly popular feature of contemporary American policing that rarely lead to serious injury, but can, under certain circumstances, cause fatal injuries. Originality/value - The paper provides interested academics and professional with information about an increasingly popular police force option. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The growth of formal police-probation partnerships in the USA has been accompanied by an increased awareness of the potential threats of mission distortion. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the dynamics of mission distribution Design/methodology/approach - The paper is based on interviews with police and community corrections officers involved in an active partnership in Spokane, Washington. The paper emphasizes the abuse of authority, stalking horse incidents, and the scope of legitimate police and probation authority. Findings - Ultimately, mission distortion has the potential to undermine the credibility of police-probation partnerships. Originality/value - The paper offers training and policy recommendations for police and community corrections administrators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose ? The purpose of this paper is to study lawsuits involving the police using newspaper accounts from three large cities in the USA. Design/methodology/approach ? A content analysis was conducted using 634 newspaper articles from the New York Times, Chicago Sun-Times, and the Los Angeles Times from 1993-2003. Findings ? Research findings reveal how prevalent racial and gender discrimination issues are in lawsuits involving the police; some of the differences in lawsuits filed by police employees compared to those filed by citizens; the extent of disciplinary action taken against police officers named in lawsuits, and any organizational changes (i.e. department policies, procedures, or training) made as a result of lawsuits filed against police agencies. Research limitations/implications ? The findings from this study are based solely on what the newspapers chose to report. It may be the case that newspapers only report on extraordinary lawsuits involving the police, or lawsuits that result in moderate to large jury awards or settlements. Practical implications ? Since there is currently no national data collection effort focused on lawsuits filed against the police, researchers are left to use the data sources available to them (in this case, newspaper articles). Originality/value ? This paper presents the first study of lawsuits involving the police using newspaper accounts. Previous studies have used survey data, court records, and interviews. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose ? The purpose of this paper is to examine perceptions of police departments and instructors regarding academy-based pre-service firearm and deadly force training. Design/methodology/approach ? Surveys of department-based instructors (n=175) and state and local police departments (n=116) in Washington State provided ratings and other data on pre-service academy training and included department-based training provided before and/or after attending the academy. Findings ? The paper found academy graduates' skills generally were rated as adequate. Ratings for tactics and decision making were lower, and many departments noted that these areas needed more attention. Some departments also provided extensive post-academy training before allowing their new officers to work armed. Nevertheless, many departments used BLEA's handgun qualification course-of-fire for in-service requalification and, in some cases, training. Research limitations ? The research setting was one state and the study focused on firearm and deadly force training. Practical limitations/implications ? The paper shows pre-service firearm and deadly force training is crucial for officer and public safety at the outset of officers' employment. It also lays the foundation for department in-service training. Because departments exercise considerable latitude over the content, techniques and instructional methods of their own programs, the nature and extent of academy training has implications for officers' skills and abilities in the long term, too. Originality/value ? This paper shows prior research has concentrated on the perceptions of academy graduates and the full spectrum job tasks associated with policing and/or taking their certification examinations. It provides detailed insights into a specific training job-task area, as well as from important stakeholders such as departments and their instructors, not previously available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - To examine the degree of homogeneity of police officers' evaluations of seriousness of police misconduct across various countries. Design/methodology/approach - The authors surveyed police officers from Croatia (N=1,649), Finland (N=378), and the USA (3,235). Respondents evaluated ten scenarios describing police corruption and one scenario describing the use of excessive force by indicating how seriously they evaluated each described behavior. Findings - Line officers' and supervisors' evaluations of seriousness of the 11 scenarios differ substantially across the three countries. The extent of disagreement varies across cases: opinions are the most heterogeneous for the least serious cases and most homogeneous for the most serious ones. By contrast, relative evaluations of seriousness - rankings of cases in each country - are quite similar across the three countries. Research limitations/implications - Future research could analyze how perceptions of seriousness vary across police agencies' characteristics (e.g. type, geographic location, and size) and respondents' characteristics (e.g. gender, race/ethnicity, age, or education), as well as forms of police misconduct (e.g. perjury, and racial profiling). Practical implications - Heterogeneity of evaluations of seriousness across the three countries suggests that country- and/or agency-wide environments play a key role in the police officers' views about seriousness of misconduct. Consequently, by controlling agency-related factors, police administrators may influence the level of seriousness with which police officers view police corruption. Originality/value - This paper shows that a larger environment plays a crucial role in forming police officers' perceptions of seriousness of police misconduct. The findings also imply that there is shared hierarchy of seriousness of various cases of police misconduct across police officers from three diverse countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - To present qualitative data illustrating how some of the largest law enforcement agencies in the USA use risk management in their efforts to control police liability. Design/methodology/approach - To explore this topic, two main data sources were utilized: telephone interviews with 354 law enforcement agencies identified the prevalence of the use of risk management by police agencies; and survey data from police agencies provided descriptive information about the roles, duties, and placement of risk managers within each police organization. Findings - Telephone interviews revealed that 14 of the 354 (0.039 percent) law enforcement agencies identified risk management as one of several tools they use to control police-related liability within their organizations. This finding is surprising, given the increase in costs associated with settlements/payouts for police-involved litigation and liability claims over the past few decades. Research limitations/implications - Future research should identify the reasons why police agencies choose not to use risk management in their police liability management efforts. In addition, future research should explore how the characteristics of city government and/or political culture are associated with the use of risk management by law enforcement agencies. Practical implications - This paper can serve as a basic resource for police scholars and practitioners, city/county attorneys, risk managers, and various other city/county agents that are interested in learning about risk management as a way to manage police liability. Originality/value - This paper presents the first national study of risk management in police agencies in the USA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aside from a few groundbreaking studies, there has been little empirical exploration into the structure of American police organizations. Traditional organizational inquiries have suggested that structural characteristics can be differentiated between those that represent complexity or differentiation within the organization and those that represent control mechanisms to coordinate and manage the complexity. This research investigates whether these various structural elements are indicative of two latent constructs by developing and testing measurement models representing structural complexity and control. Organizational scholars have also argued that structural complexity increases the demand for structural control. Maguire investigated this issue in the context of police organizations and found little support for the hypothesis. The paper reexamines this relationship by extending and replicating Maguire's analysis to ascertain if a different specification and sample sustain his conclusion. Utilizing data from the 1997 Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics survey and a survey conducted by Edward Maguire, the paper explores these issues using a sample of 401 large, municipal police organizations in the USA. The results indicate that structural control is unidimensional, while structural complexity is not. This study also provides modest evidence supporting an association between structural complexity and control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to attempt to replicate Engel’s (2001) styles of supervision using data from a new sample and including additional independent variables.Design/methodology/approach The data were collected from a sample of police supervisors (N=369) at three distinct locations throughout the USA. Bivariate analyses and ordinary least squares regression were used to analyze the data.Findings The authors find three of Engel’s four supervisory styles and find largely consistent results, with the exception of gender. Further, the authors find strong evidence for persistent agency-level effects.Originality/value Supervisory styles are important to consider, especially when trying to effectively control the behavior of subordinates. While this study cannot address the impact of organizational differences, the consistent agency-level effects suggest this as something that should be considered again in future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine whether the representativeness of police departments, i.e. the extent to which the demographics of sworn police officers mirror their local constituency’s demographic makeup, has an effect on communities. The study seeks to explain whether community complaints about police use of force are related to the representativeness of the police department.Design/methodology/approach The study examines the relationships between use of force complaints lodged against a police department and the representativeness of the police vis-à-vis their community using ordinary least squares regression and city fixed-effects models. The stratified sample of 100 large US cities uses data from the US Census Equal Employment Opportunity Survey and the Bureau of Justice Statistics Law Enforcement Management and Administration Statistics Survey from several points-in-time.Findings The analysis suggests that racial makeup and, to a lesser extent, local residency of police departments might matter in reducing community conflict with police, as represented by use of force complaints. However, the fixed-effects model suggests that unobserved community-level characteristics and context matter more than police departments’ representativeness.Originality/value This study seeks to provide a unique perspective and empirical evidence on community conflict with police by integrating the public administration theory of representative bureaucracy with criminal justice theories of policing legitimacy. The findings have implications for urban policing as well as law enforcement human capital and public management practices, which is essential to understand current crises in police-citizen relations in the US, especially in minority communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to present findings on the efficacy of documents that US police are required to provide to domestic violence survivors, specifically intimate partner violence (IPV) survivors. Triangulating data from survivors, shelter staff, and law enforcement officers across four stages of IPV experiences, this national study identifies priorities among essential information needs and proposes information guidelines for law enforcement. Design/methodology/approach - A nationally distributed, 13-item, e-mail questionnaire was submitted to a stratified sample (ten largest, median, and smallest) of law enforcement agencies in all 50 states. Domestic violence shelters in each of the 1,500 cities were similarly recruited; survivors were recruited indirectly via shelter staff. The questions were clustered in terms of four common situations. Responses from 839 individuals were obtained, self-identified as police officers (481), shelter staff (263), and IPV survivors (95). Findings - Documents should be formatted for safety (i.e. small), developed for specific situations, and written simply. They should also offer information about non-law enforcement services. All three of the populations queried agreed that the immediate needs of survivors are stronger than their long-term needs. Research limitations/implications - The primary limitations are that the survey could include no means of determining the degree to which the respondents match the sample, and the response rate was insufficient to support inferential statistical analysis. Originality/value - This national study, the first of its kind, explicates the nuances of information elements in the personally situated experiences of survivors, and it presents the first set of suggested law-enforcement document design guidelines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose -- The purpose of this paper is to evaluate a police department's Post-Crisis Assistance Program (PCAP) for consumers who experienced a police-abated mental health crisis. The authors analyzed three questions: First, does PCAP reduce a consumer's future mental health calls for service (CFS)? Second, does PCAP reduce a consumer's odds of being arrested? Third, does PCAP reduce the odds of a consumer being taken into emergency protective custody (EPC)? Design/methodology/approach -- The authors use propensity score matching to analyze data from a sample of individuals (n = 739) who experienced a police-abated mental health crisis. Findings -- The authors find that PCAP consumers generated fewer mental health CFS, were less likely to be arrested, and were less likely to be taken into EPC than non-PCAP consumers six months following a police-abated mental health crisis. Research limitations/implications -- The research only examined outcomes six months after a mental health crisis. The authors encourage future research to examine whether the benefits of PCAP persist over longer periods of time. Practical implications -- The study demonstrates that partnerships between police departments and local mental health groups can help police officers better serve citizens with mental health conditions. Originality/Value -- To the knowledge, this is the first study to evaluate the impact of a PCAP for citizens experiencing police-abated mental health crises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to better understand the institutional and external factors associated with African-American and Latino representation in policing at the line and managerial ranks. Line representation analyses utilize new data sources and a full range of theoretically informed covariates. Managerial representation analyses provide the first comprehensive attempt to understand the dynamics behind minority promotion. Design/methodology/approach – Portions of the 2000 US Census of Population and Housing Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) Tabulation, Division of Governmental Studies, and Services (DGSS) survey and Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS) survey were combined to produce a sample of 180 cities/municipal departments for analysis. Findings – Results indicate that the representation of minorities in political office and their presence in police leadership positions are among the most influential predictors of line officer diversity. Proportions of minorities in administrative police roles are greater in larger departments paying higher salaries. There is also evidence that the career advancement of minorities can be limited when multiple minority groups compete for the same promotional opportunities. Originality/value – This study provides a thorough examination of minority officer line representation and the first multivariate examination of minority representation in managerial positions using a national sample. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – Working toward a symbolic interactionist understanding of information provision by multiple agencies responding to crisis situations, in this paper the authors aim to examine mandated information provision on the part of US law enforcement to survivors of intimate partner violence. Design/methodology/approach – The authors conducted a detailed content analysis of 1,793 documents supplied by local law enforcement agencies from over 700 cities from all 50 US states. Documents were coded within a framework that identified 18 information elements corresponding to four emergent situations commonly found within the survivors' small world, as well as codes to note level of responsibility expressed by law enforcement and affective tone. Findings – Law enforcement expressed the greatest responsibility for those information elements related to their immediate purview – generally, how to engage with the police themselves in an initial crisis situation. However, information related to community social services, related to "later" survivor situations was included in the documents almost as frequently, but with less expressed direct responsibility. Originality/value – Agencies providing information to survivors of crisis situations are frequently working within an environment that is bounded by overlapping governmental and private actors who may have different norms, agendas, and priorities. Developing a symbolic interactionist model that allows for the co-existence of these different approaches, and articulates their interaction, can help IS professionals support these actors who may be struggling with minimal preparation for information interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – Working towards a broader understanding of information provision by agencies responding to crisis situations, the aim of this paper is to examine mandated information provision on the part of law enforcement to survivors of intimate partner violence at the scene of an emergency response. Design/methodology/approach – The authors conducted a detailed content analysis of 1,851 documents supplied by local law enforcement agencies from 755 US cities. A 29-element coding framework was developed to identify five key content areas of information: the nature of abuse, survivor norms, police information, legal options, and community resources. Findings – The best represented content areas related to police information, legal options, and community resources. Information on the nature of abuse and survivor hood was dramatically less well represented. Law enforcement understandably privileges that information which involves immediate, concrete action and within which the officer may have a responsibility (for example, to obtain a temporary restraining order). Correlations between city size and the presence of information elements were minimal, while several significant correlations based on region were noted. Originality/value – This is the first nationwide study of the information that police are required to provide to survivors of intimate partner violence. Understanding the features of this seldom-discussed yet vital interaction can help IS professionals support practices and protocols of other agencies responding to crisis situations who may be struggling with minimal preparation for information interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - This paper aims to explore the effects of formal police organizational structure on child sexual abuse case attrition. Design/methodology/approach - Data from two surveys were merged for this analysis: a 1988 survey of child abuse enforcement in US police departments, and the 1987 Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS) database produced by the Bureau of Justice Statistics. Based on the structure-performance link that is rooted in structural contingency theory, this study examines the effects of both global and specific structural features on two case disposition ratios. Because structure is more easily malleable than other factors that may affect performance, such as environment and context, it is important to know whether certain structural arrangements produce more desirable outcomes than others. Findings - The results indicate that the global structural variables included in this analysis play a small role in child sexual abuse case attrition. None of the variables included in the model influence the rate at which cases are designated as "founded". The size and height of police agencies and the rate at which they designate cases as founded both influence their arrest rates for child sexual abuse cases. Research limitations/implications - The small sample size made it difficult to estimate the models. Future research should test the findings reported here using larger samples. Originality/value - To the author's knowledge this is the first study to compare the effects of global and specific structures on police outputs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - This paper aims to examine some of the factors associated with the decision to participate in the promotion process for female police officers in a Midwestern police agency. Design/methodology/approach - Face-to-face, structured interviews were conducted in the spring of 2006 with most (74 percent) of the female police officers employed by a Midwestern, municipal police agency. Findings - The authors identified several organizational and personal factors that impact on female police officers' decision to participate in the promotion process. This study also uncovers a factor that has not been addressed in previous research: how being married to fellow police officers (or part of a "cop couple") can restrict the upward mobility of female police officers. Research limitations/implications - Data for this study were collected from one municipal police agency in the Midwest; therefore, the research findings may not be generalizable to small or very large police agencies. In addition, the female officers in this police agency comprise a relatively high percentage of sworn positions (15 percent) compared to the national average of 12.6 percent; therefore, the experiences of the women in this department may not be representative of other female police officers working in agencies where women comprise either more or less than 15 percent of all sworn positions. Another limitation of this study is that the sample size is small. This is a limitation that most researchers will encounter when they choose to study female police officers, as there are so few women who work in American police agencies. Practical implications - By identifying the barriers that female officers face when deciding to go through the promotion process, the authors were able to provide several administrative changes that could be made to encourage more female officers to participate in the promotion process. Originality/value - There is very limited published research on the promotion of female police officers. This study uncovers a factor that has not been addressed in previous research: how being married to fellow police officers can restrict the upward mobility of female police officers, thus resulting in a "marriage tax" for female police officers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to provide information on the activities of police bicycle patrols. Design/methodology/approach - A participant/observation research design was used. A five-city, 32-shift study on the output of police bicycle patrols was conducted. Same and similar ride-alongs were conducted with bicycle and automobile patrols. All contacts (n=1,105) with the public were recorded and coded. These data included: number of people, tenor, seriousness and origination for each contact. Findings - Analysis of these data provides evidence that bicycle patrols result in over twice as much contact with the public compared with automobile patrols. The field observation perspective revealed clear tactical advantages to bicycle patrols. Research limitations/implications - With a limited prior study of a police bicycle patrol's activities, this study is a significant initial step. Practical implications - With evidence of tactical and numerical public contact advantages, more attention and resources aimed at deployment of police bicycle patrols appear to be warranted. Originality/value - With large US cities and other departments using bicycle patrols, preliminary information on effectiveness appears to be both original and of value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose ? The purpose of this research is to analyse the vehicular pursuit policy of State Police and State Highway Patrol agencies in the USA. Design/methodology/approach ? Written policies were compared against a Standard Policy, developed by the researcher, based on prior academic and legal research in combination with the existing policies of the Connecticut State Police, California Highway Patrol, and the Minnesota State Police. A total of 47 written pursuit policies were received for a 94 percent return rate. Findings ? All policies had statements pertaining to safety and the need to pursue with due care and regard for public welfare. Items not included in many policies involved elements pertaining to liability and negligence: concerns that have been demonstrated to be instigators of litigation. Research limitations/implications ? This work centers solely on state agencies. This study is the first step in an ongoing, long-term project aimed at law enforcement vehicular pursuit policy analysis. The first step in the project centered on state agencies but will grow to include municipal agencies as well. Practical implications ? A very useful treatment of the practical side of law enforcement policy. Existing pursuit policies are examined, as are the legal principles used to guide police policy development. Originality/value ? This paper fills an untapped niche in policy research. It is both a practical analysis of existing pursuit policies and an examination of legal cases and constitutional guidelines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Long a tradition in the USA, surveys of citizen perceptions of the police are beginning to gain prominence in emerging democracies. Recently, citizen surveys using common items were conducted in New York and St Petersburg, Russia. This paper reports on a cross-national analysis of data on citizen perceptions of the police using data from these two surveys. The analyses include comparisons of voluntary and involuntary contacts with the police, perceptions of police effectiveness, and perceptions of police misconduct. Results suggest that residents of St Petersburg are more likely to be stopped by the police, while residents of New York are more likely to contact the police for assistance with crime and other neighborhood problems. Police in New York were generally seen as more effective than their counterparts in St Petersburg. In both cities, roughly half of those surveyed believed that the police engaged in misconduct. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the past 35 years, Wilson's theory of local political culture has influenced many students of policing and has greatly contributed to the erudition of American police practices. Wilson, based on empirical study, found that variation in the structural arrangements of police organizations could be explained by examining the local political culture of the municipalities in which they are located. Police departments in cities with a professional form of government, for example, focused more on law enforcement activities and had a more bureaucratic structure than agencies residing in cities with a traditional form of government which focused more on order maintenance activities and, correspondingly, had a less bureaucratic structure. The purpose of this paper is to test the utility of Wilson's theory in today's police organizations. Data collected from a sample of large, municipal police departments were included in the analysis. The findings suggest that the relationship between local political culture and police organizational structure that Wilson identified many years ago has indeed attenuated. The sample of large municipal police agencies, finds no relationship between local political culture, as measured by Wilson, and four dimensions of organizational structure: formalization, vertical differentiation, functional differentiation, and centralization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For 30 years, critics have noted a number of ailments caused by police rank structure. This paper adds to this literature by exploring the command rank structure of American police organizations in four parts. First, police rank structure is defined. Second, the hypothesized problems and benefits of tall rank structures are culled from the prior literature and described. A review of these contentions finds little reason to believe that tall rank structures are either beneficial or detrimental. Third, a systematic review of empirical studies of a range of organizations reveals that the impact of rank structure on three classes of organizational attributes is not wholly clear. This article closes with suggestions for conducting research to better ascertain the impact of hierarchy on police agencies, and how police executives can apply this knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The essence of community policing is a police-community partnership for identifying, prioritizing and resolving citizen problems. The nature of community policing demands that attention be paid to public expectations of police, and implies listening to citizens and taking their problems seriously. A critical precursor to community policing is identifying citizens' perceptions of police and their local neighborhoods. This paper presents findings from the Harrisburg Citizen Survey -- 1999, in which citizens were asked a series of questions regarding their attitudes toward their local police, their fear of crime, and their perceptions of physical and social incivilities in their neighborhoods. The overall research question for the paper is "Can attitudes toward police be predicted by citizens' perceptions of physical and social incivilities, their fear of crime, and contact with police, controlling for age, gender, race/ethnicity, household income, and level of education?" [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Congress has expressed concern that the Homeland Security agency might lack the power necessary to prevent future terrorist attacks. This paper argues that it less likely to be a lack of police power and more likely the misapplication of those powers that undermines the war on terror. Until one learns to police in ways that build trust within those communities least likely to willingly assist the police, no amount of additional funding or legal authority will increase the capacity of the police forces to gather the information needed. For neighborhood policing this means partnering with those most victimized by crime. For the war on terror, this means partnering with Arab-American communities. This examination of partnerships provides a basis for understanding how likely it is that current neighborhood policing practices will support a successful war on terror. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of the study is to examine gun violence prevention practices among urban police in the USA, assessing their scope, effectiveness, limitations, and impacts. Design/methodology/approach – A national survey was conducted with police agencies serving cities of 100,000 or more people. Findings – Strategies used most frequently and rated as most effective include targeted efforts focussed on high-risk places and groups, as well as multi-agency problem-solving efforts, particularly those involving federal authorities. However, most agencies make limited use of proactive strategies to reduce gun crime, and there are substantial gaps in the enforcement of many gun laws. Results also suggest that gun crime is lower in places where police engage in more intensive gun-related enforcement and prevention efforts. Research limitations/implications – The survey focussed only on large US cities. Implementation of the strategies could not be examined in detail, and assessments of the effectiveness of strategies reflect the views of practitioners. There is a need for more in-depth research on gun-related enforcement and prevention practices, their effectiveness, and the organizational and environmental factors that facilitate or hinder them. Practical implications – The study highlights strategies that should be given priority consideration in policy decisions. The findings also suggest that police efforts to address gun crime can be enhanced considerably – and that doing so may produce demonstrable reductions in gun crime. Further examination of policy changes necessary to facilitate these efforts is warranted. Originality/value – This study represents the first national survey of gun violence reduction efforts by police in the USA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The purpose of the present study is to examine associations between post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and salivary cortisol parameters. Design/methodology/approach - PTSD symptoms and cortisol responses were measured in a random sample of 100 police officers.?The impact of event scale (IES) categorized into subclinical, mild, moderate and severe levels was employed to measure PTSD symptoms. Cortisol was analyzed from saliva samples over a period of three days and included an awakening response, high protein lunch challenge, whole day (diurnal), and a dexamethasone suppression test (DST). Findings - Officers in moderate and severe PTSD symptom categories had higher mean awakening cortisol values. A significant sample-time by PTSD interaction (p=0.008) was found for awakening cortisol responses. Officers in the severe PTSD symptom category showed a blunted response to the cortisol protein meal challenge compared to those in lower PTSD categories. Diurnal cortisol levels suggested an increasing trend across subclinical to severe PTSD categories respectively (p=0.15 test for trend). DST ratios were lower in moderate and severe PTSD symptom categories (6.86 and 8.03 respectively) than in the subclinical and mild categories (9.32 and 10.43 respectively). Research limitations/implications - The sample was not representative of all police in the USA. These results suggest that associations between psychological trauma symptoms and dysregulation of cortisol patterns may exist and could possibly affect future health outcomes in police officers. Practical implications - Exposure to trauma and disaster events emphasizes the need to further investigate the health impact of PTSD on police personnel as well as other first responder groups. Originality/value - This article will not only be of interest to those in the police service but to the general public. The present study may serve to provide a guide for larger police population investigations on PTSD and physiological impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]