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Due to global warming and other climate changes, it is increasingly important to study the response of regional environmental changes and dynamic changes in vegetation to climate change. Based on meteorological data from the last 60 years, this paper calculates the humidity index of western China under a wide range of long time series in different regions and explores the cross-correlation effect between series by offering a comparison with NDVI data, to analyze the cross-correlation between wet and dry changes and changes in vegetation in western China on a spatial scale. The results show that the spatial distribution of the interdecadal humidity index is different between different regions in western China. For example, the semi-arid and the semi-humid zones of the Weihe River region exhibit significant changes, while the Xinjiang and Qinghai–Tibet regions show a trend of constant wetness, on the whole, and the Sichuan and Yunnan–Guizhou regions are relatively humid and the distribution of wetness and dryness is relatively stable. The distribution of high and low values of the humidity index is very obvious and consistent with that of the distribution of desert bare land and precipitation in western China. In common with the distribution in the humidity index, the maximum correlation number between the NDVI and the humidity index in the whole western region is also significantly different in spatial distribution. There is a positive correlation between the NDVI and the humidity index in 99% of the study area. However, the delay in response time of the NDVI to changes in the humidity index in each region is inconsistent. For example, changes in the NDVI lag changes in the humidity index in the Menggan region by generally either 2 months or 5 months, while in the Sichuan region the delay in response time is generally 3 months. The variation and trend in dry and wet areas are closely related to the geographical location, climate zone, and topographic terrain, which may be the reason for the differences in the distribution of vegetation types and the response time to dry and wet changes. There is significant interaction between the humidity index and the vegetation type or precipitation distribution in western China. The positive correlation between the NDVI and the humidity index means that the positive effect is more sensitive, and the response of grassland is the most sensitive in the ecosystem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given that glaciers are good indicators of climate change, it is of great scientific significance to study glacier change for regional environmental protection and water resource development and utilization. Using the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform, we obtained the distribution of glaciers in western China in 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020. Then, we analyzed the temporal and spatial evolutions of the glacier areas and their responses to climate change. The results showed that there were 52,384 glaciers in western China in 2020, with an area of 42,903.57 km2, among which those belonging to the headwater of the Tarim River are the largest, accounting for 35.25% of the total area. From 2000 to 2020, the glaciers indicated an overall trend of retreat, with the total area decreasing by 15,575.94 km2 at a change rate of 1.46%/a. From 2000 to 2010, glaciers in the southeast Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP) and Qilian Mountains saw the fastest area loss (>4%/a), followed by the Tianshan Mountains (3.31%/a), while those in the Pamir-Karakoram-West Kunlun regions and the Qiangtang Plateau had the slowest loss. From 2010 to 2020, the glacier retreat rate exhibited an accelerating trend in southeast QTP and the western Himalayas, while it slowed down in the Tianshan Mountains. The change in glaciers was greatly attributed to the combination of snowfall and summer temperature trends. The glaciers in southeast QTP showed an accelerated retreat tendency, probably due to the accelerating snowfall decrease and continuous temperature rise. The decreasing temperature mitigated the loss of glacier area in the Pamir-Karakoram-West Kunlun regions with continuously decreasing snowfall. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrological nonstationarity has brought great challenges to the reliable application of conceptual hydrological models with time-invariant parameters. To cope with this, approaches have been proposed to consider time-varying model parameters, which can evolve in accordance with climate and watershed conditions. However, the temporal transferability of the time-varying parameter was rarely investigated. This paper aims to investigate the predictive ability and robustness of a hydrological model with time-varying parameter under changing environments. The conceptual hydrological model GR4J (Génie Rural à 4 paramètres Journalier) with only four parameters was chosen and the sensitive parameters were treated as functions of several external covariates that represent the variation of climate and watershed conditions. The investigation was carried out in Weihe Basin and Tuojiang Basin of Western China in the period from 1981 to 2010. Several sub-periods with different climate and watershed conditions were set up to test the temporal parameter transferability of the original GR4J model and the GR4J model with time-varying parameters. The results showed that the performance of streamflow simulation was improved when applying the time-varying parameters. Furthermore, in a series of split-sample tests, the GR4J model with time-varying parameters outperformed the original GR4J model by improving the model robustness. Further studies focus on more diversified model structures and watersheds conditions are necessary to verify the superiority of applying time-varying parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 2 is mostly a cold period encompassing the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), but the regional expression of MIS2 in arid areas of China is not well known. In this paper, we use high-resolution lacustrine pollen and grain-size records from Balikun Lake to infer vegetation, lake evolution, and climate in arid western China during MIS2. Our results suggest that: 1) the regional vegetation around Balikun was mainly dominated by desert and/or desert-steppe, and Balikun Lake was relatively shallow and experienced high aeolian input during MIS2; 2) distinctive runoff from mountain glacial meltwater in the eastern parts of the Balikun basin caused a high relative abundance of Artemisia pollen during the LGM (26.5–19.2 cal kyr BP), while simultaneously the desert areas expanded as indicated by the high abundance of desert shrubs (e.g., Elaeagnaceae, Rhamnaceae, Hippophae ). This cold and dry LGM climate triggered a substantial lowering of lake level; 3) an extremely cold and dry climate prevailing from 17.0 to 15.2 cal kyr BP, correlated with Heinrich event 1 (H1), would explain the low vegetation cover found then; and 4) the warm and humid Bølling/Allerød interstadial (BA: ca. 15– ca. 13 cal kyr BP) is clearly recorded in the Balikun region by the development of wetland herb communities (e.g., Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Typha ), and the lake level rose due to increased runoff. Our results challenge the traditional view of cold and wet climatic conditions and high lake levels in arid western China during the LGM, and we propose that changes in local temperature modulated by July insolation was an indispensable factor in triggering vegetation evolution in the Balikun region during MIS2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to global warming and other climate changes, it is increasingly important to study the response of regional environmental changes and dynamic changes in vegetation to climate change. Based on meteorological data from the last 60 years, this paper calculates the humidity index of western China under a wide range of long time series in different regions and explores the cross-correlation effect between series by offering a comparison with NDVI data, to analyze the cross-correlation between wet and dry changes and changes in vegetation in western China on a spatial scale. The results show that the spatial distribution of the interdecadal humidity index is different between different regions in western China. For example, the semi-arid and the semi-humid zones of the Weihe River region exhibit significant changes, while the Xinjiang and Qinghai–Tibet regions show a trend of constant wetness, on the whole, and the Sichuan and Yunnan–Guizhou regions are relatively humid and the distribution of wetness and dryness is relatively stable. The distribution of high and low values of the humidity index is very obvious and consistent with that of the distribution of desert bare land and precipitation in western China. In common with the distribution in the humidity index, the maximum correlation number between the NDVI and the humidity index in the whole western region is also significantly different in spatial distribution. There is a positive correlation between the NDVI and the humidity index in 99% of the study area. However, the delay in response time of the NDVI to changes in the humidity index in each region is inconsistent. For example, changes in the NDVI lag changes in the humidity index in the Menggan region by generally either 2 months or 5 months, while in the Sichuan region the delay in response time is generally 3 months. The variation and trend in dry and wet areas are closely related to the geographical location, climate zone, and topographic terrain, which may be the reason for the differences in the distribution of vegetation types and the response time to dry and wet changes. There is significant interaction between the humidity index and the vegetation type or precipitation distribution in western China. The positive correlation between the NDVI and the humidity index means that the positive effect is more sensitive, and the response of grassland is the most sensitive in the ecosystem.

Positive degree-day (PDD) indicates the accumulated positive temperature in a given time period; it directly relates to the melting of snow and ice, and it is a key parameter between global warming and cryosphere changes. In this study, we calculated the PDD based on the daily mean temperatures from 1960 to 2018 at meteorological stations, and we used measured and interpolated data to determine spatial and temporal distribution and changes in PDD in western China (WC). Results show that the mean annual, warm season, and cold season PDD values at 209 meteorological stations were 3652.2, 2832.9, and 819.3 °C, respectively. PDD spatial distribution in WC is similar to that of air temperature. In WC, PDD mainly ranged from 0 to 5000, 1000 to 4000, and 0 to 1000 °C year−1, respectively for annual, warm season, and cold season. From 1960 to 2018, the observed mean initial day of PDD moved forward by 8.3 days, and the final day was delayed by 8.2 days, with the duration expanding to 16.6 days; the trend in PDD reversed in the 1980s and the change rate in PDD for annual, warm season and cold season was 6.6, 3.8, and 2.7 °C year−1, respectively. Regionally, PDD increased in almost all areas; the high PDD advanced from south to north, east to west, desert to mountain, and low to high altitudes. The results also showed that the warming rate of PDD was lower in the cold season and in high-altitude areas, which was opposite to the observed temperature patterns, however, the non-linear relationship between PDD and mean temperature over a period of time is the main reason for this phenomenon. This study adds more details for the understanding of climate change in WC, and suggests that more attention should be paid to PDD in the study of cryosphere changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]