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Excerpted from my book Generally Speaking, this paper introduces "concept‐driven sociology," a special way of theorizing designed to reveal abstract social patterns. As such, it examines the methodological process by which we can "distill" generic patterns from the culturally, historically, and situationally specific contexts in which we encounter them. It thus champions a "generic sociology" that is pronouncedly transcontextual (transcultural, transhistorical, transsituational, and translevel) in its scope. In order to uncover generic, transcontextual social patterns, we need to collect our data in a wide range of social contexts. Such contextual diversity is manifested multi‐culturally, multihistorically, multisituationally, as well as at multiple levels of social aggregation. True to its message, the book illustrates generic social patterns by drawing on numerous examples from diverse cultural contexts and historical periods and a wide range of diverse social domains, as well as by disregarding scale. Emphasizing cross‐contextual commonality, concept‐driven sociology tries to reveal formal "parallels" across seemingly disparate contexts. The paper features the four main types of cross‐contextual analogies concept‐driven sociologists tend to use—cross‐cultural, cross‐historical, cross‐domain, as well as cross‐level—disregarding conventionally noted substantive differences in order to note conventionally disregarded formal equivalences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quantifiers frequently figure in works of fiction. But occurrences of quantificational expressions within fictions seem no more inevitably to be associated with real domains than uses of names within fictions seem inevitably to be associated with existing referents. The paper outlines some philosophical puzzles resulting from this apparent lack of associated domains, puzzles that are broadly analogous to more familiar ones raised by the apparently nonreferential nature of many fictional names. The paper argues, in the light of an important disanalogy between quantifiers and names, that the quantificational puzzles are substantive, in that they cannot be resolved merely by appealing to the possibility of empty domains. It then argues that, despite the cited parallels between occurrences of quantifiers and names within fictions, promising treatments of fictional names do not always straightforwardly generalise to provide accounts of the quantificational phenomena: the quantificational puzzles are therefore not only substantive but also distinctive. The paper provides further testament to the depth and interest of the problems involving content that are generated by fiction, by identifying a very wide range of previously neglected cases, while also helping to situate within a broader context the notoriously hard philosophical challenges posed by fictional names. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Novelty and similarity are complex concepts that have numerous applications in various fields, including biology and medicine. Novelty detection is a technique used to determine whether a dataset is different from another dataset considered as a standard. Similarity detection is a technique used to determine whether two datasets belong to the same population. Novelty and similarity are closely related concepts; however, they are not complementary. Novelty is a much more popular one, and there are many publications about it. Similarity is, in fact, a new concept that has not yet been explored in depth. Classical statistics offers a large number of tools suitable for detection of similarity, mostly in the univariate case. At the same time, this topic has been insufficiently studied in the field of machine learning. This paper suggests several principles which are important for this research and also present a method for the detection of both novelty and similarity. The method uses a one‐class classifier, known as Data‐Driven Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogy (DD‐SIMCA). Three examples illustrate our approach. The first one uses simulated data and demonstrates the performance of DD‐SIMCA for the detection of novelty. The second example uses a real‐world data and studies similarity of two groups of patients who participate in the evaluation of the effectiveness of the treatment of primary angle‐closure glaucoma. The third example comes from medical diagnostics. This is a real‐world publicly available data used for comparison of various classification algorithms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learning to spell in English requires the integration of general and specific word knowledge. This paper describes the 'Word Nerds' project, a research–practice partnership consisting of two researchers from a large public university and 17 elementary teachers in seven school districts in the United States. The collaboration was formed to study variation in instructional practice among teachers using the Words Their Way programme and address teacher‐generated questions related to how children learn to spell words. This paper describes how stakeholders worked together to understand (1) what grouping and organisational structures teachers use for spelling instruction, (2) the extent to which elementary students use analogy to spell unknown words that share spelling patterns with known words and (3) the affordances and challenges of a partnership approach to educational research. Data collection took place over one school year. Data sources included teacher focus groups, classroom observations and student formative spelling assessment data (n = 178). Analyses included descriptive statistics, t‐tests and multilevel modelling, nesting spelling items in students in classrooms. Findings indicated that classroom observation scores for grouping, teacher talk, student‐to‐student talk, reflection and student engagement during spelling lessons varied depending on format (whole group, small group or pair/individual). Students showed evidence of spelling by analogy, but this strategy was associated in part with the semantic difficulty of the target words. Instructional practices for spelling vary based on teachers' priorities, and teachers need support to implement and prioritise evidence‐based practices. Conducting research in partnership allowed the researchers to observe and understand variation in implementation of a popular spelling programme and to develop and answer research questions that mattered to teachers; however, it also limited the size, scope and location of the project. Highlights: What is already known about this topic Children can read and spell words by analogising familiar spelling patterns from known to unknown words.Evidence‐based spelling instruction focuses on common orthographic and morphological patterns that help students use analogy to spell and form high‐quality lexical representations in memory.Implementation of evidence‐based spelling instruction is challenging for teachers, and there is little research examining how popular commercial spelling programmes are used in classrooms. What this paper adds Classrooms engaged in small‐group spelling instruction included more teacher talk; classrooms engaged in individual instruction were highly differentiated; and classrooms engaged in whole‐group instruction included more student‐to‐student talk and engagement.Student data showed evidence of spelling by analogy, but students were less likely to spell more semantically challenging words correctly and made more errors in spelling those words, even when orthographic difficulty was held constant.The research–practice partnership allowed researchers to document and explain variability in spelling instruction and address teachers' questions about spelling development. Implications for theory, policy or practice Teachers adapt spelling instruction to address their priorities, and different organisational models prioritise direct instruction, differentiation, standards‐based content, or peer collaboration.The ability to analogise spelling patterns from known to unknown words may depend on linking orthographic knowledge to vocabulary knowledge.Teachers need support and community to implement and iterate best practices for spelling instruction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper evaluates the case Paul Horwich makes in his book Wittgenstein's Metaphilosophy against so‐called T‐philosophy—the traditional conception of philosophy as a theoretical enterprise that seeks to analyse concepts, solve problems, and explain phenomena in a unified and systematic way. Different forms of T‐philosophy are identified in the paper, but it is argued that Horwich's multi‐pronged critique has no force against any of them. The paper also assesses, as a case study, Horwich's contention that the problem of our knowledge of mathematical objects can be dissolved on the grounds that the problem is based on a misguided analogy with our knowledge of physical objects. The paper shows that Horwich's contention is mistaken and that the problem can be established without drawing any analogy with our knowledge of physical objects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper offers an interpretation of Aristotle's concepts of dynamis and energeia (commonly translated as potentiality and actuality) and of the thematic progression of Metaphysics IX. I first raise the question of where motion fits in Aristotle's categories and argue that the locus of motion in the system of categories are the categories of doing and suffering, in which case dynamis and energeia in respect of motion can also be understood as the dynamis and energeia of doing and suffering. Next, I argue that the analogy that Aristotle draws in IX.6 is an analogy between the dynamis and energeia of doing and suffering and the dynamis and energeia of substance. Finally, I try to show that it is this analogy between the kinetic and nonkinetic variants of dynamis and energeia—and not the distinction between end‐inclusive and end‐exclusive activities—that provides the key to understanding the structure of Metaphysics IX. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conceptual abstraction and analogy‐making are key abilities underlying humans' abilities to learn, reason, and robustly adapt their knowledge to new domains. Despite a long history of research on constructing artificial intelligence (AI) systems with these abilities, no current AI system is anywhere close to a capability of forming humanlike abstractions or analogies. This paper reviews the advantages and limitations of several approaches toward this goal, including symbolic methods, deep learning, and probabilistic program induction. The paper concludes with several proposals for designing challenge tasks and evaluation measures in order to make quantifiable and generalizable progress in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 'black box' in Stoic axiology refers to the mysterious connection between the input of Stoic deliberation (reasons generated by the value of indifferents) and the output (appropriate actions). In this paper, I peer into the black box by drawing an analogy between Stoic and Kantian axiology. The value and disvalue of indifferents is intrinsic, but conditional. An extrinsic condition on the value of a token indifferent is that one's selection of that indifferent is sanctioned by context‐relative ethical principles. The value of an indifferent that does not meet this condition is normatively silenced, such that it fails to constitute a reason for action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is devoted to studying a notion of Bott integrability for Reeb flows on contact 3‐manifolds. We show, in analogy with work of Fomenko–Zieschang on Hamiltonian flows in dimension 4, that Bott‐integrable Reeb flows exist precisely on graph manifolds. We also show that all S1$S^1$‐invariant contact structures on Seifert manifolds, as well as all contact structures on the 3‐sphere, on the 3‐torus and on S1×S2$S^1\times S^2$, admit Bott‐integrable Reeb flows. Along the way, we establish some general Liouville‐type theorems for Bott‐integrable Reeb flows, and a number of topological constructions (connected sum, open books, Dehn surgery) that may be expected to have wider applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While AI has become more prevalent in our society than ever, many young learners are found holding various naive, erroneous conceptions of AI due to the influence of their technology and media environments. To address this issue, this study seeks to propose a novel pedagogical solution to improve upper‐elementary school students' scientific understanding of AI. Following a theory‐informed design convention, we propose an embodied, analogical and disruptive (EAD) approach which is centred on a human–AI comparison through analogical teaching and embodied interaction. To evaluate the impact of this approach, a matched‐group experimental study with pre‐ and posttest interviews was conducted among 77 Grade 6 elementary students in China. The statistical analysis showed that the experimental group, learning via the EAD approach, significantly outperformed their counterparts receiving direct instruction in terms of student growth in understanding. Qualitative analyses revealed the strengths of the EAD approach in supporting student engagement, abstract thinking and system thinking, and its limitations in cognitive overload and communication issues. Patterns of student learning were identified, including their mental schemas and strategies. The EAD approach, as an evidence‐based, age‐appropriate pedagogical solution, demonstrates the value of embodied cognition and human–AI analogy in AI education in elementary education. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Many young students hold naive, erroneous conceptions about AI.Pedagogical design has long been a critical challenge in teaching AI in K‐12 schools.Human–AI analogies are often used to teach AI, but with obvious pitfalls to be fixed.What this paper adds An embodied, analogical and disruptive (EAD) approach is proposed to improve students' understandings of AI.An experimental study shows statistically significant greater gains in students' understanding with the EAD approach than with the conventional AI‐only direct instruction approach.Qualitative analysis shows the strength of the EAD approach in supporting student engagement, abstract thinking and systems thinking, and its limitations in cognitive overload and communication issues.Implications for practice and/or policy The EAD approach offers a novel pedagogical solution to promote inclusive and quality AI education for young learners.The EAD approach highlights the pedagogical value of embodied cognition and human–AI analogy in AI education.The EAD approach can complement programming and other plugged activities in AI, and more broadly technology and engineering education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The orthodox reading of Peter Strawson's "Freedom and Resentment" tends to hide interesting elements of its underlying argumentative structure. Recognition of a distinction Strawson draws between two classes of reactive attitudes raises a question about how the distinct discussions are related. The orthodox reading seems to assume the only relevant difference between the two classes is one of perspective; however, this reading obscures the analogical nature of Strawson's argument and encourages a conflation of distinct elements within that argument. In this paper, I show that an analogical interpretation of the relationship between the distinct classes of attitudes reveals differences between them that have interesting implications for the secondary literature that has developed around Strawson's famous essay. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sprinkled through Wittgenstein's later writings is an analogy designed to appeal to his interlocutors: experiences of meaning are like dreams. But Wittgenstein gives the analogy a twist. He agrees with his interlocutor that the meaning‐blind man's talk might be said to be always dreamless. In contrast with his interlocutor, however, he holds that our own talk is ordinarily dreamless. To see why this is, we must understand that the use of the word "dream" contains, or encourages, an error. This paper examines that error and how understanding it helps us understand Wittgenstein's thoughts about meaning, experiences of meaning, and meaning‐blindness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The bare‐difference methodology is considered to be a powerful tool in ethical reasoning. The underlying idea is that we can identify the intrinsic evaluative significance of some feature by constructing contrast cases or bare‐difference cases, i.e., two cases that hold everything constant but for the feature of interest. While this popular methodology has been challenged by prominent philosophers such as Kagan, Thomson, and Kamm, it is intuitively appealing because, as Perrett identifies, the methodology appears to share the same logical structure as a fruitful scientific procedure. In this paper, I argue that examining this 'scientific analogy' is crucial to understanding both the limitations and the prospects for ethical bare‐difference reasoning. I expand upon Perrett's discussion of the scientific analogy and examine another relevant similarity. I then highlight two relevant dissimilarities between ethical bare‐difference reasoning and its scientific analogue. Though these differences threaten to undermine the analogy, I show how the analogy might be mended to better bring the ethical methodology in line with its scientific counterpart and avoid challenges to ethical bare‐difference methodology raised by philosophers in the literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper introduces a new method to stylize 3D geometry. The key observation is that the surface normal is an effective instrument to capture different geometric styles. Centered around this observation, we cast stylization as a shape analogy problem, where the analogy relationship is defined on the surface normal. This formulation can deform a 3D shape into different styles within a single framework. One can plug‐and‐play different target styles by providing an exemplar shape or an energy‐based style description (e.g., developable surfaces). Our surface stylization methodology enables Normal Captures as a geometric counterpart to material captures (MatCaps) used in rendering, and the prototypical concept of Spherical Shape Analogies as a geometric counterpart to image analogies in image processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cupcake Mohs: A simple analogy to differentiate Mohs micrographic surgery and "bread-loaf" processing While the cupcake method is advantageous in "physical" visualization and allows comparison to the bread-loaf method, Mohs surgeons should use the explanation that most fits their comfort and patients. Dear Editor, Patient education prior to Mohs micrographic surgery (MMS) is essential to clarify its benefits and risks and decrease patients' anxiety.1 The technique of MMS may be difficult to conceptualize and, therefore, Mohs surgeons need effective educational methods for patients, often needing the aid of a visual cue. [Extracted from the article]

Works on regional resilience have at times borrowed from the engineering and ecological framing of system resilience. In ecological contexts, system resilience is rooted in network structure and its characteristics. Here, we empirically investigate the relationship between regional economic resilience and regional trophic characteristics across regional and national boundaries. We consider 249 NUTS2 regions across 24 countries during the 2000–2010 period. We observe strong links between regional resilience and trophic metrics borrowed from the ecological literature. Our results further highlight regional trophic characteristics as a spatially heterogeneous intermediary for feedback effects between economic structure and output of regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The abilities to form concepts and abstractions, and to make analogies, are key to human intelligence, but AI systems have a long way to go before they can match the abilities of humans in these areas. To develop machines that can abstract and analogize, researchers typically focus on idealized problem domains that are meant to capture the essence of human abstraction abilities without having to deal with the complexity of real‐world situations. This commentary describes why solving problems in these domains remains difficult for AI systems, and discusses how AI researches can make progress on imbuing machines with these essential abilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The humble loop shrinking property played a central role in the inception of modern topology but it has been eclipsed by more abstract algebraic formalisms. This is particularly true in the context of detecting relevant non‐contractible loops on surfaces where elaborate homological and/or graph theoretical constructs are favored in algorithmic solutions. In this work, we devise a variational analogy to the loop shrinking property and show that it yields a simple, intuitive, yet powerful solution allowing a streamlined treatment of the problem of handle and tunnel loop detection. Our formalization tracks the evolution of a diffusion front randomly initiated on a single location on the surface. Capitalizing on a diffuse interface representation combined with a set of rules for concurrent front interactions, we develop a dynamic data structure for tracking the evolution on the surface encoded as a sparse matrix which serves for performing both diffusion numerics and loop detection and acts as the workhorse of our fully parallel implementation. The substantiated results suggest our approach outperforms state of the art and robustly copes with highly detailed geometric models. As a byproduct, our approach can be used to construct Reeb graphs by diffusion thus avoiding commonly encountered issues when using Morse functions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As it outlines a Christian topography of the visual, this article argues that the gaze cultivated by attention to art and the gaze of mercy bear important affinities, even if particular artworks exhibit tensions with mercy. Drawing on Augustine, Dionysius and Gregory of Nyssa, we argue that in this topography, the visual registers in multiple depths, which we explore through four distinct moments: seeing, seeing the excess, seeing the claim and seeing the divine. By analyzing the gaze of art and the gaze of mercy together with reference to artworks created during and about El Salvador's civil war (1980–92) – the homilies of Óscar Romero, the poetry of Carolyn Forché and the visual art of Fernando Llort – we show that the gaze of art echoes and can prepare for the gaze of mercy, particularly in the first three moments, for which there are direct analogies between art and mercy's gazes. There is no such direct analogy in the fourth moment of seeing the divine, yet even here there is a faint foreshadowing that connects art to mercy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Why do parasites exhibit a wide dynamical range within their hosts? For instance, why does infecting dose either lead to infection or immune clearance? Why do some parasites exhibit boom‐bust, oscillatory dynamics? What maintains parasite diversity, that is coinfection v single infection due to exclusion or priority effects? For insights on parasite dose, dynamics and diversity governing within‐host infection, we turn to niche models. An omnivory food web model (IGP) blueprints one parasite competing with immune cells for host energy (PIE). Similarly, a competition model (keystone predation, KP) mirrors a new coinfection model (2PIE). We then drew analogies between models using feedback loops. The following three points arise: first, like in IGP, parasites oscillate when longer loops through parasites, immune cells and resource regulate parasite growth. Shorter, self‐limitation loops (involving resources and enemies) stabilise those oscillations. Second, IGP can produce priority effects that resemble immune clearance. But, despite comparable loop structure, PIE cannot due to constraints imposed by production of immune cells. Third, despite somewhat different loop structure, KP and 2PIE share apparent and resource competition mechanisms that produce coexistence (coinfection) or priority effects of prey or parasites. Together, this mechanistic niche framework for within‐host dynamics offers new perspective to improve individual health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Starting with the hypothesis that analogical reasoning consists of a search of semantic space, we used eye‐tracking to study the time course of information integration in adults in various formats of analogies. The two main questions we asked were whether adults would follow the same search strategies for different types of analogical problems and levels of complexity and how they would adapt their search to the difficulty of the task. We compared these results to predictions from the literature. Machine learning techniques, in particular support vector machines (SVMs), processed the data to find out which sets of transitions best predicted the output of a trial (error or correct) or the type of analogy (simple or complex). Results revealed common search patterns, but with local adaptations to the specifics of each type of problem, both in terms of looking‐time durations and the number and types of saccades. In general, participants organized their search around source‐domain relations that they generalized to the target domain. However, somewhat surprisingly, over the course of the entire trial, their search included, not only semantically related distractors, but also unrelated distractors, depending on the difficulty of the trial. An SVM analysis revealed which types of transitions are able to discriminate between analogy tasks. We discuss these results in light of existing models of analogical reasoning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to a widely held view, epistemic reasons are normative reasons for belief – much like prudential or moral reasons are normative reasons for action. In recent years, however, an increasing number of authors have questioned the normativity of epistemic reasons. In this article, I discuss an important challenge for anti‐normativism about epistemic reasons and present a series of arguments in support of normativism. The challenge for anti‐normativism is to say what kind of reasons epistemic reasons are if they are not normative reasons. I discuss various answers to this challenge and find them all wanting. The arguments for normativism each stress a certain analogy between epistemic reasons and normative reasons for action. Just like normative reasons for action, epistemic reasons provide partial justification; they provide premises for correct reasoning; they constitute good bases for the responses they are reasons for; and they are reasons for which agents can show these responses without committing a mistake. In each case, I argue that the relevant condition is plausibly sufficient for the normativity of a reason, and that normativism is in any case in a much better position to explain the analogy than anti‐normativism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On August 2, 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait. Over the next three days, President George H.W. Bush, his advisors, and world leaders would debate and determine the United States' goals and objectives. These decisions would compel the country's trajectory for the next several months. The process regarding the determination to reverse Iraqi aggression, if necessary with force, provides a compelling case study regarding the use of historical analogies in presidential decision making. Using original archival research, this in‐depth history reveals that historical analogies played a key role in shaping policy on the eve of the Iraq War. This article provides the most complete history of the use of analogies in the initial response to the Gulf crisis to date, as well as valuable insight into the Gulf War, President H.W. Bush, and the process of presidential decision making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We argue that pretense can be viewed as analogical projection: a structural comparison between the pretend scenario and its real‐world counterpart that leads to inferences about the pretend scenario. For example, in pretending to make a phone call with a banana, a number pad might be projected on the banana's surface. We model two empirical studies of early childhood pretense, and show how successful pretense requires making and accepting such inferences, while failed pretense can be traced to failure of such projection. Other models of pretense, both theoretical and computational, and their relationships to our model, are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extreme precipitation in the Northern French Alps are mainly associated with large‐scale circulations (LSCs) bringing moist air from the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea—two atmospheric influences that are very frequent in the climatology. In this work, we investigate what characterizes the Atlantic/Mediterranean circulations driving extreme precipitation in the Northern French Alps in comparison to 'random' Atlantic/Mediterranean circulations. We focus on extreme 3‐day precipitation over two medium size neighbouring catchments from 1950 to 2017. Atlantic and Mediterranean circulations are identified using an existing weather pattern classification established for Southern France. Every single LSC is characterized using three atmospheric descriptors based on analogy in geopotential shapes at 500 hPa over Western Europe that were introduced in previous works. They are (a) the celerity, characterizing the stationary nature of a geopotential shape, and (b) the singularity and relative singularity, characterizing the resemblance of a geopotential shape to its analogs, in other words the way this geopotential shape is closely reproduced in the climatology. We add to these analogy‐based descriptors a new (non‐analogy) descriptor accounting for the strength of the low and high‐pressure systems. We show that Atlantic/Mediterranean circulations driving extreme 3‐day precipitation in the Northern French Alps are the Atlantic/Mediterranean circulations featuring the strongest centres of action as well as the most stationary and the most reproducible geopotential shapes—characteristics that are rare for both atmospheric influences. In the Atlantic case, these characteristics appear to be even more pronounced and rare with regard to the whole climatology, pointing LSC as an important driver of extreme precipitation. In the Mediterranean case, these characteristics appear to be more random with regard to the whole climatology, pointing a more balanced contribution between specific LSC and humidity in driving extreme precipitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reaction rate concepts in heterogeneous catalysis are based on well‐defined and usually well‐quantified active sites. Such an active site is stable over time and its main features are typically constant. In heterogeneous photocatalysis, the active site is of different nature. Its existence depends on the instantaneous availability of photons and the variable ability of the photocatalyst to use them. In fact, a realistic expression of the active site that at least in the main feature – stability over time – resembles the classical heterogeneous catalytic concept is missing. Here, the concept of a dynamic active site of the heterogeneous oxidation photocatalyst that is (in a dynamic sense) time stable is elaborated and carefully discussed. The novelty of this approach should be seen in the straightforward applicability of standard kinetic models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a critical inconsistency in the literature on analogical retrieval. On the one hand, a vast set of laboratory studies has found that people often fail to retrieve past experiences that share deep relational commonalities, even when they would be useful for reasoning about a current problem. On the other hand, historical studies and naturalistic research show clear evidence of remindings based on deep relational commonalities. Here, we examine a possible explanation for this inconsistency—namely, that remindings based on relational principles increase as a function of expertise. To test this claim, we devised a simple analogy‐generation task that can be administered across a wide range of expertise. We presented common events as the bases from which to generate analogies. Although the events themselves were unrelated to geoscience, we found that when the event was explainable in terms of a causal principle that is prominent in geoscience, expert geoscientists were likely to spontaneously produce analogies from geoscience that relied on the same principle. Further, for these examples, prompts to produce causal analogies increased their frequency among nonscientists and scientists from another domain, but not among expert geoscientists (whose spontaneous causal retrieval levels were already high). In contrast, when the example was best explained by a principle outside of geoscience, all groups required prompting to produce substantial numbers of analogies based on causal principles. Overall, this pattern suggests that the spontaneous use of causal principles is characteristic of experts. We suggest that expert scientists adopt habitual patterns of encoding according to the key relational principles in their domain, and that this contributes to their propensity to spontaneously retrieve relational matches. We discuss implications for the nature of expertise and for science instruction and assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study employs a numerical approach to investigate noise mechanisms in tandem cylinders. The tandem cylinder configuration is an excellent model for aircraft landing gear. The study is therefore primarily motivated by the need to understand the aircraft landing gear as a primary contributor to airframe noise during approach and landing. Fluctuations in the flow properties induced by turbulent flow around the tandem cylinders are computed and analyzed. A hybrid improved delayed detached eddy simulation turbulence model is employed to compute the boundary layer flow as well as to compute the fluctuations in the flow properties. The numerical methodologies for the turbulent flow computations are implemented on the OpenFOAM software platform. The study also considers the impact of neglecting the volume sources and employs two modified versions of Curle's and Ffowcs‐Williams and Hawkings analogies. The results are in good agreement with published numerical and experimental data in the existing literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analogy is a powerful tool for fostering conceptual understanding and transfer in STEM and other fields. Well‐constructed analogical comparisons focus attention on the causal‐relational structure of STEM concepts, and provide a powerful capability to draw inferences based on a well‐understood source domain that can be applied to a novel target domain. However, analogy must be applied with consideration to students' prior knowledge and cognitive resources. We briefly review theoretical and empirical support for incorporating analogy into education, and recommend five general principles to guide its application so as to maximize the potential benefits. For analogies to be effective, instructors should use well‐understood source analogs and explain correspondences fully; use visuospatial and verbal supports to emphasize shared structure among analogs; discuss the alignment between semantic and formal representations; reduce extraneous cognitive load imposed by analogical comparison; and encourage generation of inferences when students have some proficiency with the material. These principles can be applied flexibly to topics in a wide variety of domains. Teaching relational concepts in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) poses persistent challenges for educators. We consolidate theoretical perspectives and empirical findings from cognitive science to suggest five principles that can guide efforts to use analogy to improve educational outcomes for students with varying backgrounds and varying cognitive abilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Invited for this month′s cover is the group of Prof. Fokko M. Mulder at the Delft University of Technology. The image on the cover shows how in the NH3 synthesis via hydrogen‐permeable electrode the N, H species on the catalyst surface can be controlled, using the analogy of a traffic controller. The Research Article itself is available at 10.1002/cssc.202300460. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]