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Sediment discharged from the Greenland Ice Sheet delivers nutrients to marine ecosystems around Greenland and shapes seafloor habitats. Current estimates of the total sediment flux are constrained by observations from land-terminating glaciers only. Addressing this gap, our study presents a budget derived from observations at 30 marine-margin locations. Analyzing sediment cores from nine glaciated fjords, we assess spatial deposition since 1950. A significant correlation is established between mass accumulation rates, normalized by surface runoff, and distance down-fjord. This enables calculating annual sediment flux at any fjord point based on nearby marine-terminating outlet glacier melt data. Findings reveal a total annual sediment flux of 1.324 + /- 0.79 Gt yr-1 over the period 2010-2020 from all marine-terminating glaciers to the fjords. These estimates are valuable for studies aiming to understand the basal ice sheet conditions and for studies predicting ecosystem changes in Greenlands fjords and offshore areas as the ice sheet melts and sediment discharge increase.

Over the past two decades, ice loss from the Greenland ice sheet (GrIS) has increased owing to enhanced surface melting and ice discharge to the ocean1-5. Whether continuing increased ice loss will accelerate further, and by how much, remains contentious6-9. A main contributor to future ice loss is the Northeast Greenland Ice Stream (NEGIS), Greenland's largest basin and a prominent feature of fast-flowing ice that reaches the interior of the GrIS10-12. Owing to its topographic setting, this sector is vulnerable to rapid retreat, leading to unstable conditions similar to those in the marine-based setting of ice streams in Antarctica13-20. Here we show that extensive speed-up and thinning triggered by frontal changes in 2012 have already propagated more than 200 km inland. We use unique global navigation satellite system (GNSS) observations, combined with surface elevation changes and surface speeds obtained from satellite data, to select the correct basal conditions to be used in ice flow numerical models, which we then use for future simulations. Our model results indicate that this marine-based sector alone will contribute 13.5-15.5 mm sea-level rise by 2100 (equivalent to the contribution of the entire ice sheet over the past 50 years) and will cause precipitous changes in the coming century. This study shows that measurements of subtle changes in the ice speed and elevation inland help to constrain numerical models of the future mass balance and higher-end projections show better agreement with observations.

During the last few decades, several sectors in Antarctica have transitioned from glacial mass balance equilibrium to mass loss. In order to determine if recent trends exceed the scale of natural variability, long-term observations are vital. Here we explore the earliest, large-scale, aerial image archive of Antarctica to provide a unique record of 21 outlet glaciers along the coastline of East Antarctica since the 1930s. In Lützow-Holm Bay, our results reveal constant ice surface elevations since the 1930s, and indications of a weakening of local land-fast sea-ice conditions. Along the coastline of Kemp and Mac Robertson, and Ingrid Christensen Coast, we observe a long-term moderate thickening of the glaciers since 1937 and 1960 with periodic thinning and decadal variability. In all regions, the long-term changes in ice thickness correspond with the trends in snowfall since 1940. Our results demonstrate that the stability and growth in ice elevations observed in terrestrial basins over the past few decades are part of a trend spanning at least a century, and highlight the importance of understanding long-term changes when interpreting current dynamics.Pre-satellite era observations of Antarctic glaciers are rare. A unique record of aerial expedition images of East Antarctic outlet glaciers since the 1930s reveal long-term stability and moderate thickening. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glaciers and ice caps (GICs) are important contributors of meltwater runoff and to global sea level rise. However, knowledge of GIC mass changes is largely restricted to the last few decades. Here we show the extent of 5327 Greenland GICs during Little Ice Age (LIA) termination (1900) and reveal that they have fragmented into 5467 glaciers in 2001, losing at least 587 km3 from their ablation areas, equating to 499 Gt at a rate of 4.34 Gt yr−1. We estimate that the long‐term mean mass balance in glacier ablation areas has been at least −0.18 to −0.22 m w.e. yr−1 and note the rate between 2000 and 2019 has been three times that. Glaciers with ice‐marginal lakes formed since the LIA termination have had the fastest changing mass balance. Considerable spatial variability in glacier changes suggest compounding regional and local factors present challenges for understanding glacier evolution. Plain Language Summary: Glaciers and ice caps of Greenland peripheral to the ice sheet are important contributors of meltwater to the oceans and to global sea‐level rise. In this study we map the extent of 5467 glaciers during the Little Ice Age (LIA) termination c. 1900 and calculate that they have lost at least 587 km3. The rate of mass change of these glaciers between 2000 and 2019 was three times more negative than the long‐term average (of 4.34 Gt yr−1) since the LIA. Lake‐terminating glaciers now lose mass the fastest compared with land‐ or marine‐terminating glaciers. Considerable spatial variability in glacier responses suggests local factors are important and makes glacier evolution complex. Key Points: Total volume loss of at least 587 km3 since the Little Ice Age (LIA) termination, equating to 499 Gt and to 1.38 mm sea level equivalentGlacier mass balance from 2000 to 2019 is three times more negative than since the LIA but five times more negative in the North regionLake‐terminating glaciers have experienced the greatest change in rate of mass loss [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) or jökulhlaups from ice-dammed lakes are frequent in Greenland and can influence local ice dynamics and bedrock motion, cause geomorphological changes, and pose flooding hazards. Multidecadal time series of lake drainage dates, volumes, and flood outlets are extremely rare. However, they are essential for determining the scale and frequency of future GLOFs, for identifying drainage mechanisms, and for mitigating downstream flood effects. In this study, we use high-resolution digital elevation models (DEMs) and orthophotos (0.1 × 0.1 m) generated from uncrewed-aerial-vehicle (UAV) field surveys, in combination with optical satellite imagery. This allows us to reconstruct robust lake volume changes associated with 14 GLOFs between 2007 and 2021 at Russell Glacier, West Greenland. As a result, this is one of the most comprehensive and longest records of ice-dammed lake drainages in Greenland to date. Importantly, we find a mean difference of ∼ 10 % between our lake drainage volumes when compared with estimates derived from a gauged hydrograph 27 km downstream. Due to thinning of the local ice dam, the potential maximum drainage volume in 2021 is ∼ 60 % smaller than that estimated to have drained in 2007. Our time series also reveals variations in the drainage dates ranging from late May to mid-September and drainage volumes ranging between 0.9 and 37.7 Mm 3. We attribute these fluctuations between short periods of relatively high and low drainage volumes to a weakening of the ice dam and an incomplete sealing of the englacial tunnel following the large GLOFs. This syphoning drainage mechanism is triggered by a reduction in englacial meltwater, likely driven by late-season drainage and sudden air temperature reductions, as well as annual variations in the glacial drainage system. Furthermore, we provide geomorphological evidence of an additional drainage route first observed following the 2021 GLOF, with a subglacial or englacial flow pathway, as well as supraglacial water flow across the ice margin. It seems probable that the new drainage route will become dominant in the future. This will drive changes in the downstream geomorphology and raise the risk of flooding-related hazards as the existing buffering outlet lakes will be bypassed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At the Pingorsuit Glacier in North‐West Greenland, an organic‐rich deposit that had recently emerged from the retreating ice cap was discovered at an elevation of 480 m above sea level. This paper reports on macrofossil analyses of a coarse detritus gyttja and peaty soil, which occurred beneath a thin cover of till and glacifluvial deposits. The sediments contained remains of vascular plants, mosses, beetles, caddisflies, midges, bryozoans, sponges and other invertebrates. The flora includes black spruce, tree birch, boreal shrubs and wetland and aquatic taxa, which shows that mires, lakes and ponds were present in the area. We describe a new extinct waterwort species Elatine odgaardii. The fossils were deposited in a boreal environment with a mean July air temperature that was at least 9 °C higher than at present. The fossil assemblages show strong similarities with others from Greenland that have been assigned an Early Pleistocene age, and we suggest a similar age for the sediments found at the margin of the Pingorsuit Glacier. At the Pingorsuit Glacier in North‐West Greenland, an organic‐rich deposit was discovered at an elevation of 480 m above sea level. The sediments contained remains of vascular plants, mosses, beetles, caddisflies, midges, bryozoans, sponges and other invertebrates. The fossils were deposited in a boreal environment with a mean July air temperature that was at least 9 °C higher than at present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine-terminating outlet glacier terminus traces, mapped from satellite and aerial imagery, have been used extensively in understanding how outlet glaciers adjust to climate change variability over a range of timescales. Numerous studies have digitized termini manually, but this process is labor intensive, and no consistent approach exists. A lack of coordination leads to duplication of efforts, particularly for Greenland, which is a major scientific research focus. At the same time, machine learning techniques are rapidly making progress in their ability to automate accurate extraction of glacier termini, with promising developments across a number of optical and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) satellite sensors. These techniques rely on high-quality, manually digitized terminus traces to be used as training data for robust automatic traces. Here we present a database of manually digitized terminus traces for machine learning and scientific applications. These data have been collected, cleaned, assigned with appropriate metadata including image scenes, and compiled so they can be easily accessed by scientists. The TermPicks data set includes 39 060 individual terminus traces for 278 glaciers with a mean of 136 ± 190 and median of 93 of traces per glacier. Across all glaciers, 32 567 dates have been digitized, of which 4467 have traces from more than one author, and there is a duplication rate of 17 %. We find a median error of ∼ 100 m among manually traced termini. Most traces are obtained after 1999, when Landsat 7 was launched. We also provide an overview of an updated version of the Google Earth Engine Digitization Tool (GEEDiT), which has been developed specifically for future manual picking of the Greenland Ice Sheet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) or 'jökulhlaups' from ice-dammed lakes are frequent in Greenland and can influence local ice dynamics, bedrock displacement, geomorphological changes and flooding hazards. Multidecadal time series of lake drainage dates, drainage volumes and flood outlets are rare but essential for understanding the impact on and interaction with the surroundings, identifying drainage mechanisms, and for mitigating downstream flood effects. In this study, we use ultra-high-resolution structure-from-motion (SfM) digital elevation models (DEM) and orthophotos from unmanned aerial vehicle field surveys in combination with optical satellite imagery to reconstruct robust lake volume changes associated with 14 GLOFs between 2007 and 2021 at Russell Glacier, West Greenland. This makes it, one of the most comprehensive and longest records of ice-dammed lake drainages in Greenland. We find a mean difference of 10 % between the lake drainage volumes compared with estimates derived from a gauged hydrograph 27 km downstream. Due to ice dam thinning, the potential maximum drainage volume in 2021 is c. 60 % smaller than that estimated to have drained in 2007. Our time series reveals variations in the drainage dates ranging from late May to mid-September and moreover that drained volumes range between 0.9 - 37.7 M m3. We attribute these fluctuations between short periods of relatively high and low drainage volumes to a weakening of the ice dam and an incomplete sealing of the englacial tunnel following the large GLOFs. The syphoning drainage mechanism is triggered by a reduction in englacial meltwater, likely driven by late seasonal drainages and sudden temperature reductions, as well as annual variations in the glacial drainage system. Furthermore, we provide geomorphological evidence of an additional drainage route first observed following the 2021 GLOF with a sub- or englacial and supraglacial water flow across the ice margin. It seems probable that the new drainage route will become dominant in the future which will drive changes in the downstream geomorphology and raise the risk of flooding-related hazards as the existing buffering outlet lakes will be bypassed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Landslides are a frequent natural hazard occurring globally in regions with steep topography. Additionally, landslides play an important role in landscape evolution by transporting sediment downslope. Landslide inventory mapping is a common technique to assess the spatial distribution and extent of landslides in an area of interest. High-resolution digital elevation models (DEMs) have proven to be useful databases to map landslides in large areas across different land covers and topography. So far, Denmark had no national landslide inventory. Here, we create the first comprehensive national landslide inventory for Denmark derived from a 40 cm resolution DEM from 2015 supported by several 12.5 cm resolution orthophotos. The landslide inventory is created based on a manual expert-based mapping approach, and we implemented a quality control mechanism to assess the completeness of the inventory. Overall, we mapped 3202 landslide polygons in Denmark with a level of completeness of 87 %. The complete landslide inventory is freely available for download at 10.6084/m9.figshare.16965439.v2 (Svennevig and Luetzenburg, 2021) or as a web map (https://data.geus.dk/landskred/ , last access: 6 June 2022) for further investigations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent decades, Greenland's peripheral glaciers have experienced large‐scale mass loss, resulting in a substantial contribution to sea level rise. While their total area of Greenland ice cover is relatively small (4%), their mass loss is disproportionally large compared to the Greenland ice sheet. Satellite altimetry from Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite (ICESat) and ICESat‐2 shows that mass loss from Greenland's peripheral glaciers increased from 27.2 ± 6.2 Gt/yr (February 2003–October 2009) to 42.3 ± 6.2 Gt/yr (October 2018–December 2021). These relatively small glaciers now constitute 11 ± 2% of Greenland's ice loss and contribute to global sea level rise. In the period October 2018–December 2021, mass loss increased by a factor of four for peripheral glaciers in North Greenland. While peripheral glacier mass loss is widespread, we also observe a complex regional pattern where increases in precipitation at high altitudes have partially counteracted increases in melt at low altitude. Plain Language Summary: The Arctic is warming more rapidly than the rest of the world. This warming has had an especially profound impact on Greenland's ice cover. Only 4% of Greenland's ice cover are small peripheral glaciers that are distinct from the ice sheet proper. Despite comprising this relatively small area, these small peripheral glaciers are responsible for 11% of the ice loss associated with Greenland's recent sea level rise contribution. Using the satellite laser platforms Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite (ICESat) and ICESat‐2, we estimate that ice loss from these Greenland glaciers increased from 27 ± 6 Gt/yr (2003–2009) to 42 ± 6 Gt/yr (2018–2021). We find that the largest acceleration in ice loss is in North Greenland, where we observe ice loss to increase by a factor of four between 2003 and 2021. In some areas, it appears that recent increases in snowfall at high altitudes have partially counteracted recent increases in melt at low altitudes. While many recent Greenland ice loss assessments have focused on only the ice sheet, the recent sharp increase in ice loss from small peripheral glaciers highlights the importance of accurately monitoring Greenland's small peripheral glaciers. These small peripheral glaciers appear poised to play an outsized role in Greenland ice loss for decades to come. Key Points: Greenland peripheral glacier mass loss increased from 27.2 Gt/yr (February 2003–October 2009) to 42.3 Gt/yr (October 2018–December 2021Mass loss increased by a factor of four for peripheral glaciers in North Greenland during February 2003–December 2021Enhanced precipitation in northeast Greenland during October 2018–December 2021 resulted in ice thickening at higher elevations [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We compile and analyze all available geothermal heat flow measurements collected in and around Greenland into a new database of 419 sites and generate an accompanying spatial map. This database includes 290 sites previously reported by the International Heat Flow Commission (IHFC), for which we now standardize measurement and metadata quality. This database also includes 129 new sites, which have not been previously reported by the IHFC. These new sites consist of 88 offshore measurements and 41 onshore measurements, of which 24 are subglacial. We employ machine learning to synthesize these in situ measurements into a gridded geothermal heat flow model that is consistent across both continental and marine areas in and around Greenland. This model has a native horizontal resolution of 55 km. In comparison to five existing Greenland geothermal heat flow models, our model has the lowest mean geothermal heat flow for Greenland onshore areas. Our modeled heat flow in central North Greenland is highly sensitive to whether the NGRIP (North GReenland Ice core Project) elevated heat flow anomaly is included in the training dataset. Our model's most distinctive spatial feature is pronounced low geothermal heat flow (< 40 mW m -2) across the North Atlantic Craton of southern Greenland. Crucially, our model does not show an area of elevated heat flow that might be interpreted as remnant from the Icelandic plume track. Finally, we discuss the substantial influence of paleoclimatic and other corrections on geothermal heat flow measurements in Greenland. The in situ measurement database and gridded heat flow model, as well as other supporting materials, are freely available from the GEUS Dataverse (10.22008/FK2/F9P03L; Colgan and Wansing, 2021). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Northeast Greenland is the place where the Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS) experienced the largest areal changes since the Last Glacial Maximum. However, the age constraints of the last deglaciation are in some areas sparse. In this study, we use forty-seven new 10Be cosmogenic exposure ages to constrain the deglaciation of the present-day ice-free areas in Northeast Greenland. Our results show that the outer coast region was deglaciated between 12.8 ± 0.6 and 11.5 ± 0.2 ka and the region close to the present ice margin was deglaciated 2 to 4 ka later between 9.2 ± 0.3 to 8.6 ± 0.3 ka. By combining our new results with previously published data from North and Northeast Greenland, we find that the ice sheet advanced to the shelf edge between 26 and 20 cal. ka BP. The outer coast was deglaciated between 12.8 and 9.7 ka and the present ice extent was reached between 10.8 to 5.8 ka. The ice margin continued to retreat farther inland during the Middle Holocene before it readvanced toward its Little Ice Age position. The deglaciation was probably forced by a combination of increased atmospheric and ocean temperatures, but local topography also played an important role. These results add to the growing knowledge about the glaciation history of the GrIS and add useful constraints for future ice sheet models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Landslides are a frequent natural hazard occurring globally in regions with steep topography. Additionally, landslides are playing an important role in landscape evolution by transporting sediment downslope. Landslide inventory mapping is a common technique to assess the spatial distribution and extend of landslides in an area of interest. High-resolution digital elevation models (DEMs) have proven to be useful databases to map landslides in large areas across different land covers and topography. So far, Denmark had no national landslide inventory. Here we create the first comprehensive national landslide inventory for Denmark derived from a 40 cm resolution DEM from 2015 supported by several 12.5 cm resolution orthophotos. The landslide inventory is created based on a manual expert-based mapping approach, and we implemented a quality control mechanism to assess the completeness of the inventory. Overall, we mapped 3202 landslide polygons in Denmark with a level of completeness of 87 %. The landslide inventory can act as a starting point for a more comprehensive hazard and risk reduction framework for Denmark. Furthermore, machine-learning algorithms can use the dataset as a training dataset to improve future automated mapping approaches. The complete landslide inventory is made freely available for download at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.16965439.v1 (Svennevig and Luetzenburg, 2021) or as web map (https://data.geus.dk/landskred/) for further investigations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Outlet glaciers in Greenland exhibited rapid frontal retreat, thinning, and flow acceleration in the 21st century. In contrast to a number of studies in the last two decades, long-term glacier changes are not well known, hence limiting the understanding of ongoing glacier retreat. In this study, we present surface elevation changes of 16 glaciers along the coast of Prudhoe Land, northwestern Greenland, using digital elevation models between 1985 and 2018. All the glaciers experienced surface lowering at a mean rate of -0.55 ± 0.24 m a-1 over the period of study. Surface elevation change has shown a clear shift from 0.14 ± 0.17 m a-1 in 1985-2001 to -1.31 ± 0.20 m a-1 in 2001-2018. Thinning after 2001 was more significant at the glaciers terminating in Inglefield Bredning, represented by the most rapid thinning of Tracy and Farquhar Glaciers at -3.91 ± 0.13 and -2.91 ± 0.18 m a-1, respectively. Glaciers terminating in shallower fjords directly connected to Baffin Bay showed a thinning rate 40% slower than those in the Inglefield Bredning region. Warming trends in atmospheric and ocean temperature since the late 1990s are most likely triggers of the glacier regime shift around 2001. The heterogeneity in the glacier change is attributed to the glacier geometry and fjord bathymetry of each individual glacier, since glaciers terminating in deep fjords are subjected to greater acceleration and are more affected by deep ocean warming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We compile, analyse and map all available geothermal heat flow measurements collected in and around Greenland into a new database of 419 sites and generate an accompanying spatial map. This database includes 290 sites previously reported by the International Heat Flow Commission (IHFC), for which we now standardize measurement and metadata quality. This database also includes 129 new sites, which have not been previously reported by the IHFC. These new sites consist of 88 offshore measurements and 41 onshore measurements, of which 24 are subglacial. We employ machine learning to synthesize these in situ measurements into a gridded geothermal heat flow model that is consistent across both continental and marine areas in and around Greenland. This model has a native horizontal resolution of 55 km. In comparison to five existing Greenland geothermal heat flow models, our model has the lowest mean geothermal heat flow for Greenland onshore areas (44 mW m-2). Our model's most distinctive spatial feature is pronounced low geothermal heat flow (< 40 mW m-2) across the North Atlantic Craton of southern Greenland. Crucially, our model does not show an area of elevated heat flow that might be interpreted as remnant from the Icelandic Plume track. Finally, we discuss the substantial influence of paleoclimatic and other corrections on geothermal heat flow measurements in Greenland. The in-situ measurement database and gridded heat flow model, as well as other supporting materials, are freely available from the GEUS DataVerse (https://doi.org/10.22008/FK2/F9P03L; Colgan and Wansing, 2021). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a novel method to estimate dynamic ice loss of Greenland's three largest outlet glaciers: Jakobshavn Isbræ, Kangerlussuaq Glacier, and Helheim Glacier. We use Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) stations attached to bedrock to measure elastic displacements of the solid Earth caused by dynamic thinning near the glacier terminus. When we compare our results with discharge, we find a time lag between glacier speedup/slowdown and onset of dynamic thinning/thickening. Our results show that dynamic thinning/thickening on Jakobshavn Isbræ occurs 0.87 ± 0.07 years before speedup/slowdown. This implies that using GNSS time series we are able to predict speedup/slowdown of Jakobshavn Isbræ by up to 10.4 months. For Kangerlussuaq Glacier the lag between thinning/thickening and speedup/slowdown is 0.37 ± 0.17 years (4.4 months). Our methodology and results could be important for studies that attempt to model and understand mechanisms controlling short‐term dynamic fluctuations of outlet glaciers in Greenland. Plain Language Summary: A wide range of sensors and methods have been used to study the changes of the Greenland Ice Sheet, including satellite gravimetry, altimetry, and the input‐output method. Here, we present a novel fourth method to estimate dynamic ice loss of Greenland's three largest outlet glaciers: Jakobshavn Isbræ, Kangerlussuaq Glacier, and Helheim Glacier. We use Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) stations attached to bedrock to measure rise of land masses caused by ongoing ice mass loss near the glacier terminus. When we compare our results with ice discharge, we find a time lag between glacier speedup/slowdown and onset of dynamic induced thinning/thickening. Our results show that dynamic thinning/thickening on Jakobshavn Isbræ occurs 0.87 ± 0.07 years before speedup/slowdown. This implies that using GNSS uplift time series we are able to predict ice flow speedup/slowdown of Jakobshavn Isbræ by up to 10 months. For Kangerlussuaq Glacier and Helheim Glacier the lag between thinning/thickening and speedup/slowdown is 0.37 ± 0.17 years (4.4 months) and 0.03 ± 0.16 years, respectively. Our methodology and results could be important for studies that attempt to model and understand mechanisms controlling short‐term dynamic fluctuations of outlet glaciers in Greenland. Key Points: A novel method to estimate dynamic ice loss of Greenland's three largest outlet glaciers, Jakobshavn, Kangerlussuaq, and Helheim glacierDynamic thinning/thickening occurs 0.87 ± 0.07 years before speedup/slowdown at Jakobshavn IsbræA similar time lag between change in uplift rate and flow speed change allows us to predict future ice discharge from past uplift [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Northern Hemisphere, an insolation driven Early to Middle Holocene Thermal Maximum was followed by a Neoglacial cooling that culminated during the Little Ice Age (LIA). Here, we review the glacier response to this Neoglacial cooling in Greenland. Changes in the ice margins of outlet glaciers from the Greenland Ice Sheet as well as local glaciers and ice caps are synthesized Greenland-wide. In addition, we compare temperature reconstructions from ice cores, elevation changes of the ice sheet across Greenland and oceanographic reconstructions from marine sediment cores over the past 5,000 years. The data are derived from a comprehensive review of the literature supplemented with unpublished reports. Our review provides a synthesis of the sensitivity of the Greenland ice margins and their variability, which is critical to understanding how Neoglacial glacier activity was interrupted by the current anthropogenic warming. We have reconstructed three distinct periods of glacier expansion from our compilation: two older Neoglacial advances at 2,500 – 1,700 yrs. BP (Before Present = 1950 CE, Common Era) and 1,250 – 950 yrs. BP; followed by a general advance during the younger Neoglacial between 700-50 yrs. BP, which represents the LIA. There is still insufficient data to outline the detailed spatio-temporal relationships between these periods of glacier expansion. Many glaciers advanced early in the Neoglacial and persisted in close proximity to their present-day position until the end of the LIA. Thus, the LIA response to Northern Hemisphere cooling must be seen within the wider context of the entire Neoglacial period of the past 5,000 years. Ice expansion appears to be closely linked to changes in ice sheet elevation, accumulation, and temperature as well as surface-water cooling in the surrounding oceans. At least for the two youngest Neoglacial advances, volcanic forcing triggering a sea-ice /ocean feedback, could explain their initiation. There are probably several LIA glacier fluctuations since the first culmination close to 1250 CE (Common Era) and available data suggests ice culminations in the 1400s, early to mid-1700s and early to mid-1800s CE. The last LIA maxima lasted until the present deglaciation commenced around 50 yrs. BP (1900 CE). The constraints provided here on the timing and magnitude of LIA glacier fluctuations delivers a more realistic background validation for modelling future ice sheet stability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information about the Late Paleocene age for Greenland's Hiawatha impact structure. It mentions that Hiawatha structure, located beneath Hiawatha Glacier in northwestern Greenland, has been proposed as an impact structure that may have formed after the Pleistocene inception of the Greenland Ice Sheet.