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The article focuses on the resolution, submitted by the North American Assembly of State Arts Agencies, regarding arts and education in the U.S. The resolution aims to create a better learning environment for students and to support the teachers working toward better educational quality in American schools. The North American Assembly believes that arts are fundamental in American public education to encourage an open society and that they give way to the acceptance of cultural democracy. In addition, the committee considers an open teaching method in schools as a way to nurture students' capacities.

This article discusses the problems which arise in the planning and organizing of educational indicator systems. If a person wants to assess the effect of a certain measure, program evaluation can not be substituted by social indicators as usually conceived. Social indicators can not either give much guidance in the day-to-day planning in intermediate levels of the administration. What social indicators can do is to give a kind of gross evaluation of a number of measures usually taken under a period and of unforeseen and unplanned changes as well, to indicate if the development is taking desired directions. A danger of an indicator system of the type closely affiliated to administration is the sectorization and institutional bias likely to manifest itself in concentration on means available to the bureaucracy in question. This is an advantage as to manipulability of means but as disadvantage as to seeing the whole range of alternatives. In a social-indicators-project the ideal would be indicators of knowledge and skills in the whole population, instead of educational indicators aimed primarily at evaluating the institutionalized school system and its effects on the minority of the population affected by it.

The article presents the author's response to the comments made on his paper "A.F. Leach on the Reformation." According to the author, his own approach was that of one interested in sixteenth and seventeenth century schooling who found that Leach's interpretation of events at the Reformation did not tally with the later evidence. This led to a detailed examination of the case argued in English Schools at the Reformation; then, since this case depended directly on a reading of earlier ecclesiastical and educational history, it was necessary to look further back. According to the author, it was the main object of his paper to suggest a reassessment of developments at the Reformation, in the interests of clarifying the course of educational history. According to the author, he suggested that there was a prima facie case for questioning Leach's assessment of the Chantries Act because it is at variance with the general views of medieval historians and with the later evidence, dealing mainly with the latter.

The paper focuses on political change and assumes that education in Nigeria, as elsewhere in the world, will be expected to contribute to political reconstruction. The limitations of schooling for planned political socialization is analyzed. Although the paper's observations refer particularly to Nigeria, they are meant to apply generally to the relationship between school and society in any nation. It also discusses obstacles from several sources to using the schools as an instrument for political change that also cast serious doubt on their availability for such efforts.

This paper reports a D.S.I.R. experiment in the application of programmed instruction to craft apprentice training.
An instructor at an apprentice school was trained to convert parts of the normal syllabus into auto-instructional programmes, such programmes being progressively reshaped in the light of the success of the programmes as a teaching device. It was found that, in addition to providing a teaching method fitted to the apprentice's needs, the system (when in operation for the ninety-day pre-apprenticeship period) also allowed an instructor to give much more time to personal tuition of individual apprentices. This proved a dual aid to pre-apprenticeship training and, in some cases, shortened the teaching time required, thus permitting extended production experiences under controlled workshop conditions before transference to the main works. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper has shown that the linguistic aspects of Mexican culture strikingly persist among those American citizens of Mexican ancestry who were found in an Army Special Training Center. All trainees of Mexican ancestry speak Spanish, no matter how many generations their ancestors may have lived on what is now the soil of the United States. Quite a number are also conversant with Spanish in terms of reading and writing. Some speak no English whatever. A few of this latter group have attended English-speaking schools but can neither read nor write English although they can read and write Spanish, a language which they have not formally studied in school. The native-born and reared non-English Mexican has been shown to be more maladjusted and less intelligent than the non- English, foreign-born and educated Spanish-speaking trainee. A number of possible explanations were educed for the persistence of the Mexican culture, the most plausible being the propinquity of Mexico. Many Mexicans cross the border almost annually during their lives; over one in five of the American-born trainees of Mexican ancestry had lived in Mexico one year or more prior to induction. His diet sets the Mexican apart and to a certain extent so does his religion. The presence of Mexican movies and newspapers helps perpetuate his original language. The fact that he mainly follows certain unskilled occupations and pursues these in company with other Mexicans keeps his original culture alive. The occasional and sometimes violent antagonism of the majority population probably causes the Mexican to close ranks about his culture. And for some of these people the Spanish place names in the Southwest and the memory that their ancestors formerly owned the land, before the advent of the Yankee, may cause citizens of Mexican ancestry to cling more closely to the only heritage left to them, their culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This article reports that the story of how the state first involved itself in English primary education has long been a familiar part of the historical canon. It is informed that in 1833, the first reformed Parliament met. Flushed with the spirit of reform, the Radicals came forward with an agenda of measures to implement. One such measure was national education. Henry Brougham, a politician, had gained the reputation, since 1816, of being the most vigorous supporter of national education in the Commons. Although educationists took his accession to office in November 1830 as a sign that the Reform Ministry planned some measure in this area, it failed to bring any forward. The issue, however, was early on the agenda of the reformed Parliament of 1833. It is also reported that Brougham, as a minister, did not introduce the education bill which was expected of him, a bill similar to his measure of 1820. His own education committee had shown then that although voluntary contributions provided for considerable schooling, they were insufficient to supply all the required schools.

The article reports on the complexity of athletic exclusion in schools. It investigates on the criteria of exclusion from the athletic squad and the social-psychological behavior of those students excluded and denied of the learning experiences afforded by the athletic program. The FIRO theory is cited for the determination of the subjective differences in attitudes, personality conflicts in the student and the coach upon which the exclusion of athletes is based. Athletic exclusion involves the processes of cutting and quitting. The cutting process is depends upon the perceptions of the coach and the quitting process depends upon the perceptions of the athletes.

The article discusses the art and science of human movement. A differentiation of these two terms involved in the study is presented. Physical education is understood as the school or college educational program which employs movement experiences in the creation of concepts and nurturing of precepts. It is dedicated with facts and beliefs obtained from the meaning of movement in human life. On the other hand, human movement involves a search for knowledge beyond the limitation or even application in physical education.

The article examines the concept of decentralization and the centralization-decentralization dilemma based on previous studies. There are different approaches to understanding the concept of decentralization. A doctrinal approach to decentralization shows how the concept is regarded as a means to the achievement of a number of end values. Another approach contrasts the Latin American and North American educational system models by differentiating between structural and administrative centralization-decentralization. The last approach is called political dimension. It helps to indicate the extent of potential decentralization of general responsibility for education.

The diversity of findings on the class-delinquency relationship may reflect differential middle-class cultural dominance in school systems. In predominantly middle-class schools, the minority of working-class youth conform to the majority standards and the relationship does not hold. In more class heterogeneous schools a cross-class cultural diffusion occurs among youth such that objective class status no longer is predictive of delinquency. In predominantly working-class schools a negative class-delinquency relationship is found; in such a milieu, those youth who are committed to conventional middle-class culture only can have acquired such commitments from their middle-class parents. The self-report studies of class and delinquency are reviewed in the light of these hypotheses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The critical limitation of the interpretation of schools as independent normative systems is the failure to demonstrate that observed student orientations are acquired in schools rather than in other settings such as the home or community. The problem is approached here as a question of whether students' orientations vary with lengths of membership in the same school organization. Data were examined for 7,954 students in 19 schools which contained grade-lengths 7-9, 7-12, 9-12, and 10-12. The analyses indicated that the distinctiveness of school normative climates is slightly but positively associated with lengths of school membership when school size is controlled. While schools can be viewed as relatively distinct systems, they should also be seen as highly permeable in the midst of their community and home environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study which discussed graffiti in the institutions of higher education. According to the author, in the presents study the finding of a greater number of heterosexual inscriptions for the trade schools is quite in line with expectations. The relatively greater frequency of homosexual inscriptions in higher socio-economic level schools is not just a reflection of the disappearance of heterosexual inscriptions but is an isolated event, as showed by the fact that the findings hold equally well when proportions are taken in terms of nonerotic inscriptions rather than in terms of the whole.

Presents a summary of dramatic productions at schools in the U.S. as of November 1925.

Deals with public speaking in the early colleges and schools in the U.S. Introduction of debating in English into the curriculum; Role of the literary society in the development of public speaking; Information on the curriculum of the University of Virginia.

In a 2 × 2 factorial design, each of 128 students was solicited to sign either a petition regarding the changing of the color of the school seal or one concerning the establishment on campus of an ROTC program, and after witnessing a confederate either agree or refuse ot sign the petition. Results showed that, in accordance with the hypothesis, endorsement rates for the school seal petition were primarily governed by a tendency of subjects to conform to the example of the witnessed other. Endorsement rates for the ROTC petition were not significantly influenced by background factors. It was therefore concluded that the petition may be regarded as a legitimate tool for measuring conformity, but primarily when the issue involved is weak or ambiguous, and should best be considered a legitimate indicator of opinion when the issue concerned is a prominent or important one. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mean Goodenough scores of 40 groups differing widely in original culture and in degree of modernization have been presented. The data were obtained primarily from six-year-olds who were in their first year of school, but some data from some older children and from children not in school have been included. The Goodenough "IQ" means varied from 53 to 125. It was proposed that the independent variable most directly related to the diversity of group means is the amount of experience with representational art, and in encouragement to engage in it. Variation in exposure to representational art may be due to differences in development of native art or to the degree of exposure to Western art, or to both. Since exposure to Western visual mass media is usually accompanied by exposure to other aspects of Western civilization, it was hypothesized that in the case of groups with little indigenous art, Goodenough scores reflect different degrees of acculturation to Western civilization. Examination of the data presented seems to support these interpretations more strongly than they support alternative hypotheses. Evidence has been adduced that Goodenough means of formerly low-scoring populations have increased as their modernization has increased. The Goodenough test, originally designed to measure "hereditary" differences, may be found useful as an index of what have variously been called degrees of acculturation. Westernization, modernization, and social change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the field of personnel work. There is a great demand for counselors and personnel workers by schools, industry and business. The present demand and interest in personnel work, however, had its roots much further back than World War II. At the turn of the century, management was concerned with ''work output," quality of raw materials, markets, and expansion, but not much attention was given to the worker, his interests, aptitudes and skills. During World War I, increasing attention was given to proper placement and use of manpower. Men had to be classified quickly. Psychologists began to fashion instruments for measuring human capacities, particularly intelligence tests. After the war the American Council on Education and various other research agencies promoted testing and the making of tests. In the 1930's business organizations began to use tests in the selection and placement of personnel. Some devised their own tests. The Western Electric Company started its million dollar research program which added a large body of facts to personnel study and counseling. World War II came along. It was necessary to assimilate thirteen million men in a hurry.

The article studies the interrelationships between several measures of general preferences and analyzes the relationships of specific preferences. The essential purpose in studying such relationships was to see to what extent it was possible to understand or interpret psychologically certain preferences in the light of others. The interrelationships among the general preferences were indicated by the intercorrelations among the general preference measures. The relationships between the general preferences and responses to the specific occupation names were also found by means of correlations. The relationships between the general preferences and the choice of a professional school were measured by differences in general preference scores between the professional school groups. It should be pointed out that all the measures of preferences which have been used in this study, with the exception of the selection of a professional school, are based on verbal material. In common with most currently used personality measuring methods, the present tests are subject to the limitations inherent in such procedures.

The article focuses on the current state and the future of education in developing countries. The author analyzes the process of the development and modernization of the existing educational systems of these countries. Developing countries, reportedly, centuries have possessed the following instruments for educational development: a full gamut of schools, the press, elaborate structures of administration, and the immersion in the pecuniary network. Nations are re-discovering that once schooling becomes accepted and enrolments begin to rise, the rush into secondary and higher schools can become irresistible. This is expected to occur over progressively larger areas of the world at a comparatively earlier stage of educational evolution than in the West. The author analyzes the risks of overloading the schools. He also highlights five widely accepted functions performed by schools, which are: preparing individuals in some degree to earn a living, introducing children to some elements of a common culture to widen their mental horizons, ensuring that pupils' individuality is heightened and they gain new conceptions of themselves, help to identify and to mould elites, and strengthening and preserving the educational system.

This overview reflects the subjective viewpoint of an observer who is concerned, however, with reporting impartially the positive and negative aspects of trends and tendencies. It starts with a short outline of the present situation and then depicts the more recent developments and efforts being made. For the most part it is limited to schools of general education and does not deal with the vocational education system or vocational training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a comparative study of educational organization in the 16 plus range. It focuses on the educational systems in Austria and England. The difficulties created by the different historical backgrounds of England and Austria are discussed. The article considers the "Federal School Law of 1962," which is considered as the most important single document concerning school organization in Austria. An overview of the Austrian grammar school is explored. The article also discusses the problems of Austrian educational thought and organization.

The article reports on some environmental factors that affect extended secondary education in England. It discusses an awareness of marked variations in decisions to stay on by students in different areas and in different types of school. Some predictive factors may be identified in the external environment of the schools. The article highlights the results of a study that examined two areas of variables external to secondary schools, those associated with the administrative regimes in which the schools operated and those associated with their catchment areas. The research was conducted in a representative group of English local education authority areas over a five-year period, 1958 to 1963.

The article talks about the important developments in the educational system of the Socialist Republic of Rumania. The main types of the old Rumanian school system, which includes pre-school institutions, elementary schools, secondary schools, higher education and teacher training, are discussed. It offers the developments in the system after World War II. A thorough discussion of the present educational system in Rumania is presented, including descriptions of the characteristics of education in Rumania and the school types. Other developments and prospects for Rumanian schools are also discussed.

The article explores the situation in higher education in Great Britain as of November 1965. It highlights the results of the report of the Committee on Higher Education chaired by Lord Robbins. The report proposed that the numbers in full-time higher education should grow from 216,000 in 1962/63 to 392,000 by 1973/74, and further to 558,000, by 1980/81. The article argues that the situation in higher education is very confused, full of uncertainty and charged with underlying ambivalent attitudes of the government, education and industry towards each other. It also discusses the establishment of cooperative schemes between industry and universities and the influence of the Science Research Council in developing relationships between industry and the universities. The article also suggests that need to fully utilize scarce resources is bound to become increasingly important as the number of students to be educated increases in the technical college as well as in universities and colleges.

The article is concerned with some of the problems of universities, with special reference to countries which were formerly British colonies. It discusses the problems of technology, economics and manpower. The article demonstrates the philosophical problems are not less important. An attempt is made to determine the purpose of a university in a developing country. It explores the issues of academic freedom and university autonomy, in new countries of the British Commonwealth. It suggests that the greatest contribution of the universities of metropolitan countries to universities in colonial countries has been the establishment of standards. The author emphasizes the need to address the additional problems experienced by universities in new countries of the British Commonwealth., and discusses the implications for the future of higher education.

The articles reports that the schools of New Zealand were copied from their prototypes in Great Britain. Education standards were modeled on the revised Code for the elementary schools in Great Britain. The aim of the Minister of Education is to give the children of New Zealand quality training not inferior to that obtained in the primary schools of England and Scotland. The derived character is reinforced by the outflow of emigrants from the British Isles.

The article reports that the educational policy in Sweden should be evaluated in a socio-economic perspective. The approval of an Education Act provided for the establishment of a unitary school which proved the usefulness of the first nine years of schooling. The reform meant a break with the organizational set-up. The academic type of school was opened to children from all walks of life and admission was based on competitive entrance examinations.

The article traces the course of development of universities in the British Commonwealth countries of Africa, and examines some of the problems involved. The origin of the University College of Sierra Leone lies in the Christian Institution founded in 1816. The end of World War II in 1945 was the turning in university development. The main advantage of establishing university colleges in special relationship with London University was that these colleges were able to claim an equality of academic standards with an institution of world standing. Probably, the biggest problem in university development is the defining of the relationship between State and University, between politician and professor.

The article examines the Mobile Normal School team program in Nepal. The teams could move about from year to year and provide training near the trainee's home. The normal school program is administered by the College of Education. The team is headed by a Headmaster. Four of five associates will be specialists in the humanities, or social sciences and language, science and mathematics, fine arts and crafts, vocational education, physical education, and professional education, or various combinations of these.

Focuses on the impact of permissive and authoritarian philosophies on educational rigidity. Benefits of having flexible time schedules in schools; Categorization of class lectures under the group of authoritarian philosophies; Effect of exercising authority on students; Need for a balance between permissiveness and authoritarianism in schools; Meaning of 'freedom of choice' in terms of education.

Focuses on the need to prepare and support teachers for survival in schools in the United States. Predicaments of a public school teacher; Forbidden situations for which teachers are fired; Organizations providing support to teachers; Comparison between plight of teachers in public and nonpublic schools.

Focuses on the development of field teaching, an alternative form of education, to provide formal education for children and adults who have been excluded from appropriate education in the United States. Functions of field teaching; Comparison between field teaching and schooling; Assumptions of a field teacher program; Issues derived from assumptions of the program; Proposed results of field teaching.

This article focuses on contemporary research in physical geography in the Chinese people's republic. The national program of geographical research as pursued not only in the institutions subordinated to the Chinese Academy of Sciences but also in the academic schools, is presented at the congresses of the Chinese Geographical Society. The research program being earned out at present was formulated at a congress held in Peking in January 1960. This program is characterized by its close connection with the practical needs of the national economy, and the principal objective of its activities is research leading to increased agricultural production.

The article focuses on the August 1st School system for children of high ranking cadres of China. The author notes that the August 1st School, under the control of the small group in power taking the capitalist road in the Peking Military District, China, has completely lost the glorious tradition of school management in the old soviet zones and has gradually fallen into the quagmire of revisionism. The main task of the school has been, on the one hand, to take good care of the children of officers, to let them live comfortably, and, on the other hand, to guarantee that these children will climb upward and be like their parents. When they grow up they will become officials and masters. For this purpose, the school authorities at the time persistently demanded increases in the rate of matriculation into higher schools. The small batch of power holders leading the August 1st school are said to collude, both with conscious intent and through unconscious influence, in order to bureaucratize the structure of the school so that their children will become careerists.

Reports on faculty-instituted programs which speech departments at four year institutions in the U.S. operate. Goals of the programs; Disadvantage of independent study in speech; Growth pattern of independent study programs in speech.

Focuses on the responsibility of speech departments in time of revolt in schools in the U.S. Role of speech professors in the education of the citizen; Recognition of the field of study of the professor; Nature of the speech process in human communication.

Focuses on a study which determined the schools in the U.S., where speech is taught, that are interested in the superior student. Methodology of the study; Results and discussion; Conclusion.

Presents an article about teaching speech in Australia. Demographic information on the country; Difference between the school system of Australia and the U.S.; Information on various speech associations in the country.

The article presents information on the schools of the Royal Academy. There is no attempt here to deal with events preceding the founding of the Academy in 1768. The original request of November 28, 1768, made by twenty-two artists to King of Great Britain George III was for an academy with two principal objects: the establishing of a well-regulated School of Academy of Design for the use of students in the Arts, and an Annual Exhibition, open to all artists of distinguished merit, where they may offer their performances to public inspection. George III gladly took on this patronage and from that point, inevitably, there were two forces in Academy activities, the public one of annual exhibitions and the private one of routine meetings and the running of the Schools. Much of the subsequent development was thus fixed at the outset. Royal patronage occasioned Court patronage and the inevitable accent on portraiture. Successive Presidents and Professors followed his thinking, and the student-training side of the Academy was never allowed to be forgotten. But this was not the public face, and it was to the public face that many of the subsequent criticisms were directed.

The article presents information about the role of secondary modern schools in fiction. Although schools and educators have appeared in fiction with increasing frequency since the nineteenth century, coinciding with the expansion of education and the growth of the reading public, their treatment in most novels, until the post-war period, has been too limited to justify close attention as educational comment. In the early part of the nineteenth century, the teacher was a neglected figure in fiction; his lowly status failed to qualify him for inclusion in novels about fashionable society, or his appearance was limited to the superficial treatment given to a large gallery of minor figures, more popular as the material of fiction than the study of a single portrait. Since the Second World War, however there has been the emergence of different kinds of school fiction. In this period, the day school has replaced the public school as a setting and the teacher has been treated in a more serious way. Significantly, there are marked differences between the grammar school and secondary modern school novels, differences which reflect their respective places in the educational system.

This article presents information on the utility of adopting some of the concepts of the sociologist in looking at the historical development of education. This has mainly been done with reference to the Mechanics Institutes movement, but could equally fruitfully have been applied to such areas as the development of female education, the growth of the Public Schools, or movement by religious bodies to build elementary schools. In the present unsatisfactory state of the teaching of the History of Education in Colleges of Education, and the attention now being given to revision of syllabus and method, explorations in the use of the tools of the sociologist would seem timely. It is proposed to explore their usefulness in relation to the formation and development of Mechanics Institutes. The authors examined the attitudes towards popular education generally and the Institutes in particular. Examined in relation to the working man, it is necessary first to establish motive. This perception was related to the break-up of established community patterns that had existed in the eighteenth century, and increased mobility in job structure, which, while it could lead to unemployment and job superfluity in some trades, also made it possible for a man to think in terms of promotion or change of skill. With the possibilities of promotion and frustration in achieving this, the working man could look for institutions which promised positive advantages in achieving upward mobility.

The article presents a list of books related to the histories of schools in England and Wales. Some of the books listed are "Schools of the Edmonton Hundred," by George William Sturgess; "Middlesex and Hertfordshire Notes and Queries," edited by William John Hardy; "A Survey of London. . .written in the Year 1598," by John Stow; "The Environs of London. . . ," by Daniel Lysons; "Middlesex," by Richard Michael Robbins.

The article focuses on the short career of Seymour Tremenheere as an inspector of schools, that illustrates the emergence of such restraints and controls and the growing pains of a new race of Civil Servant. Tremenheere was heir to a long tradition of public service on both sides of the family. Tremenheere was duly appointed "Her Majesty's Inspector of Schools" by Order-in-Council as notified in the London Gazette, December 9, 1839. He brushed aside an attempt by certain administrative colleagues to give him verbal instructions. Tremenheere was determined to fashion the work as he saw fit, acting at all times in conjunction with the Secretary. In Tremenheere's view an absolute minimum of dependence upon Executive discretion and control was essential to the school inspector. In 1843, along with other inspectors, he received a yard square form requiring detailed information about his work. He simply indicated his current assignment and lined through the rest of the form before returning it. His first assignment was to inspect the proposed site and structure of several school houses in Monmouth and Hereford, whose sponsors had applied for government grant-in-aid.

This article profiles A.F. Leach, Assistant Commissioner of education in England. When, in 1886, the Charity Commissioners deputed Leach, to inquire into the school at Southwell Minster, a chain reaction was set up which, in Leach's estimation, led to a revolution in the history of English schools. By far the greater number of those who have referred to Leach's work have accepted or rested on it. Yet it has not been incorporated into the general history of the Middle Ages. Leach worked over this de novo, and in 1896 published his book "English Schools at the Reformation," in which he showed that the attribution of fifty-one "new" foundations to King Edward VI's reign is a misreading of history. In this book he printed the surviving records of the Chantry Commissioners, the most important source for the general history of English schools. As a result of these books, Leach was chosen to write or edit most of the chapters on schools in the Victoria County Histories then appearing. In 1911 he printed, in Educational Charters and Documents, a collection of original sources, in the introduction to which he summarized his views.

This article presents information on scholar Foster Watson and his contribution to the field of education. He was admitted from Lincoln Grammar School to read an honors degree in English at Owens College, Manchester, England in 1878. There he moved into the orbit of scholar A.W. Ward, and in one sense he never moved out of it. For Ward, as the Professor of History and English Language and Literature, was building up the Manchester History School by a prodigious output of published work, followed, on his departure from Manchester, by fostering and fathering those great co-operative histories--the Cambridge Modern History, the Cambridge History of English Literature and the Cambridge History of British Foreign Policy. Twenty years later Watson himself was to contribute to the second of these. When Foster Watson became vice-master of the Central Foundation School in Cowper Street, England in 1885, he was brought into immediate contact with the Finsbury Training College, because it used rooms there.

The article focuses on a study which tries to outline the basic essentials of the sociometric method in English schools. Group methods of teaching, group dynamics, and group therapy have all made their impact, and therefore it is not surprising that a considerable volume of empirical research has been devoted to the origin and development of groups among schoolchildren and to the factors which bear upon this process. Sociometric methods yield a picture of the group structure in a population, with reference to specific criteria, and also a measure of status relative to the same criteria. It has been repeatedly shown that there is considerable overlap between results based on different criteria so that there is no great logical leap from findings relative to specific broad criteria to inferences about the general group structure of populations. Statistical and other properties of sociometry require further investigation, especially as non-parametric methods develop. The relation of sociometric choices inside with those outside test populations also demand more study; my own interim results suggest that this may constitute a valuable approach to the understanding of groups within a formal unit such as a school class.

This article presents information on the developments in the scientific and technical subjects in the curriculum of English in secondary schools at the turn of the century in Great Britain. The development of English secondary education in the early part of this century can be strongly contrasted with the liberal outlook of the Bryce Commission R.F. Young. He has criticized Regulations for Secondary Schools because they did not accord with their outlook, and neglected the vocational aspects of secondary education. The records of the Department of Science and Art provide most important information on the extent of scientific and technical education in the second and third grade schools. A secondary school wishing to earn grants from the Department could arrange to do so in two ways: it could introduce science classes in several subjects without interfering very much with the general school programme; alternatively, the syllabus for the whole or part of the school could be organized according to the detailed regulations for a school of science, sometimes referred to as an organized science school.

This article focuses on the contributions of philosopher and educator Michael Sadler in the field of German studies, considering some of his literary works and biographical sources. As an enterprising undergraduate, Sadler went to Heidelberg, Germany, to learn German while teaching classics in an English boys' school. In I 884 he made the acquaintance of Joseph Wright, then assistant master on the staff of Neuenheim College in Heidelberg. In the decade before the outbreak of the first world war it is difficult not to become swamped by the multiplicity of references that Sadler made to German experience on all manner of occasions. Three pieces of work only are selected for mention, as being outstanding studies: in 1908, "Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere" was published; in 1910 a trenchant historical analysis comparing German and English educational development in the nineteenth century was included in the volume of "Germany in the Nineteenth Century"; and in May 1912 Sadler lectured on "England's Debt to German Education in Frankfurt-am-Main," a strikingly informed address of which a reprint exists. During the 1930s Sadler did a good deal of book reviewing and there are some notable commentaries on writings like Leonard Woolf's "The Intelligent Man's Way to Prevent War" and Vernon Bartlett's "Nazi Germany Explained."