Search

The Upper Hunter Valley is a major coal mining area in New South Wales (NSW), Australia. Due to the ongoing increase in mining activities, PM10 (air-borne particles with an aerodynamic diameter less than 10 micrometres) pollution has become a major air quality concern in local communities. The present study was initiated to quantitatively examine the spatial and temporal variability of PM10 pollution in the region. An earlier paper of this study identified two air quality subregions in the valley. This paper aims to provide a holistic summarisation of the relationships between elevated PM10 pollution in two subregions and the local- and synoptic-scale meteorological conditions for spring and summer, when PM10 pollution is relatively high. A catalogue of twelve synoptic types and a set of six local meteorological patterns were quantitatively derived and linked to each other using the self-organising map (SOM) technique. The complex meteorology–air pollution relationships were visualised and interpreted on the SOM planes for two representative locations. It was found that the influence of local meteorological patterns differed significantly for mean PM10 levels vs. the occurrence of elevated pollution events and between air quality subregions. In contrast, synoptic types showed generally similar relationships with mean vs. elevated PM10 pollution in the valley. Two local meteorological patterns, the hot–dry–northwesterly wind conditions and the hot–dry–calm conditions, were found to be the most PM10 pollution conducive in the valley when combined with a set of synoptic counterparts. These synoptic types are featured with the influence of an eastward migrating continental high-pressure system and westerly troughs, or a ridge extending northwest towards coastal northern NSW or southern Queensland from the Tasman Sea. The method and results can be used in air quality research for other locations of NSW, or similar regions elsewhere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the urgent need to decarbonise the world's energy system, clean hydrogen is emerging as a potential technological solution. As with any new technology, understanding the public's response to hydrogen is critical to its success. Most studies examining public attitudes towards hydrogen have focused on refuelling stations and transport options. As a first of its kind, using a national survey (N = 2785) we evaluate the Australian public's response towards hydrogen for domestic and export use. In Australia, acceptance of hydrogen in domestic applications was influenced by its relative cost, ability to reduce air pollution and associated health benefits. Further, support for a hydrogen export industry was influenced by levels of trust in the government to manage the associated risks and the industry's commitment to climate protection. The paper concludes that effective, nuanced communication and engagement along with supporting financial policies will be critical in facilitating societal acceptance of hydrogen in Australia. [Display omitted] • An Australian national survey investigating subjective support for hydrogen. • Technology Acceptance Framework variables strongly influence hydrogen support. • The influence of TAF variables is observed in domestic use and hydrogen export. • One third of participants support a hydrogen plant being built near them. • Behavioural factors did not have a significant influence on hydrogen support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For air quality and health professionals it is clear that air pollution is a serious concern and that air quality in many locations globally must be understood and controlled to minimise its devastating impacts. The widespread understanding of air pollution impacts relies on identifying key information to be communicated which should be relevant, impactful and easily understood. This includes air quality index, health impacts and typical exposure levels. This information must be communicated effectively to the public and decision makers - the method of communication (i.e. technical web-based reports versus newspapers) and format of content (i.e. graphicalbased or written) are key considerations. The control of impacts also relies on effective communication - behavioural changes can be influenced by achieving widespread awareness and education. We are not currently observing significant changes towards air pollution reductions, suggesting effective communication is not being achieved and must be a focus for air quality professionals. This paper explores methods which are being used globally to effectively communicate implications of air pollution on human health and how these may be implemented in Australia. This paper also details how low-cost particle sensors can be used to establish relevant and relatable pollution exposure levels - data is presented for a case study completed in South Australia, providing an understanding of peak and average PM2.5 concentrations recorded at specific times and locations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As urban populations increase, the need for more efficient and less-polluting transport follows. Local air quality considerations are a crucial factor in the design and assessment of transport systems and infrastructure. Road tunnels play an important role in our built environment. In recent years Australia, and Sydney in particular, has seen a rise in road tunnels built in densely populated areas. Air pollution from tunnels longer than one kilometre is usually dispersed through elevated ventilation outlets which, whilst effective, often have large implications for design and operation. The venting of tunnel exhaust air from portals is common in other parts of the world, but it remains an operating restriction for several recent tunnels in NSW. For this reason, the air quality impacts of tunnel portals emissions have not been extensively assessed in Australia. The GRAL model was developed at the Graz University of Technology in 1999, with one of the main drivers for its development being the need to assess dispersion from road tunnel portals. GRAL has been used for this purpose across Europe, and now more widely. This paper summarises the results of a micro-simulation dispersion modelling study using GRAL for a small urban area. The focus of the study was to test the sensitivity of the concentrations predicted by GRAL to model configuration, inputs and assumptions. The effects of topography, receptor placement and the portal air temperature increment are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Australian 2019/20 summer witnessed an extraordinary bushfire season characterised by unprecedented duration, geographical reach and impact. The aftermath of the bushfires includes increased health-related implications on people due to short and long exposure to poor air quality. The current advice from the Australian authorities in such events is to remain indoors, as it was assumed indoor air quality (IAQ) is healthy. This paper examined that assumption and presents the case study of an office building in Canberra subjected to the 2019/20 bushfires, responding to the need of understanding the ability of air-conditioning buildings to cope with such unprecedented and extreme weather events. Measured data for indoor concentration of CO2, PM10 and PM2.5 recorded a prolonged period of concerning levels, as well as extreme concentration peaks. This poses a significant risk to the occupants' health. The values showed peaks up to 12 times higher for PM10 and 24 times higher for PM2.5 than the recommended critical thresholds. The infiltration factor and protection performance analysis suggest that old filtering systems and low airtightness levels are not optimal in protecting the indoor environment from outdoor air pollutants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Australians are one of the world’s highest per capita emitters of greenhouse gases, yet the country’s target for emissions reductions by 2030 remains modest. This paper looks at policy options for Australian cities to deliver faster emissions reductions than the national commitment level. The main focus is on an accelerated reduction in emissions from urban road transport, through technological improvements and behaviour changes. Targets are proposed for improved emissions intensities, to bring Australia much closer to US and EU performance expectations. A range of behaviour change measures is then tested on Melbourne and Sydney, the Sydney analysis using MetroScan-TI, an integrated evaluation framework, to explore how behaviour changes might enhance emissions outcomes. The potential contribution of public transport is a particular focus. The paper concludes that, with sufficient political will, Australia could reduce its 2030 road transport emissions to 40% below 2005 levels. This is a much larger reduction than the current 26–28% Australian target but is more consistent with longer term pathways to acceptable carbon budgets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The significant health impacts and costs for poor indoor air quality (IAQ) are likely to be comparable if not worse than those already demonstrated for outdoor air quality. Recent assessments have placed household air pollution as the 8th largest Global Burden of Disease risk (HEI 2018) and WHO reported that "in 2012 around 7 million people died - one in eight of total global deaths - as a result of air pollution exposure. In this paper we show that these assessments while well accepted, are based a relatively small number of IAQ studies and small sample numbers. In general, there is a lack of knowledge on the sources and personal exposures to indoor air pollutants compared to outdoors. We conclude that that exposure and health risk from poor IAQ needs to be addressed similar to that of outdoor air quality. NZ and Australia need an organisation or group of organisations to take a larger responsibility or lead on IAQ. ■ To implement or coordinate monitoring programs for homes, workplaces and public buildings to determine what other issues there are and how widespread they extend. ■ To develop policies, best practice guides, indoor air quality standards and an education program for how we live in our homes/work places and public buildings to improve our collective nation's indoor air quality and our health/productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Planning and transport agencies play a vital role in influencing the design of townscapes, travel modes and travel behaviors, which in turn impact on the walkability of neighbourhoods and residents' physical activity opportunities. Optimising neighbourhood walkability is desirable in built environments, however, the population health benefits of walkability may be offset by increased exposure to traffic related air pollution. This paper describes the spatial distribution of neighbourhood walkability and weighted road density, a marker for traffic related air pollution, in Sydney, Australia. As exposure to air pollution is related to socio-economic status in some cities, this paper also examines the spatial distribution of weighted road density and walkability by socio-economic status (SES).Methods: We calculated walkability, weighted road density (as a measure of traffic related air pollution) and SES, using predefined and validated measures, for 5858 Sydney neighbourhoods, representing 3.6 million population. We overlaid tertiles of walkability and weighted road density to define "sweet-spots" (high walkability-low weighted road density), and "sour- spots" (low walkability-high weighted road density) neighbourhoods. We also examined the distribution of walkability and weighted road density by SES quintiles.Results: Walkability and weighted road density showed a clear east-west gradient across the region. Our study found that only 4 % of Sydney's population lived in sweet-spot" neighbourhoods with high walkability and low weighted road density (desirable), and these tended to be located closer to the city centre. A greater proportion of neighbourhoods had health limiting attributes of high weighted road density or low walkability (about 20 % each), and over 5 % of the population lived in "sour-spot" neighbourhoods with low walkability and high weighted road density (least desirable). These neighbourhoods were more distant from the city centre and scattered more widely. There were no linear trends between walkability/weighted road density and neighbourhood SES.Conclusions: Our walkability and weighted road density maps and associated analyses by SES can help identify neighbourhoods with inequalities in health-promoting or health-limiting environments. Planning agencies should seek out opportunities for increased neighbourhood walkability through improved urban development and transport planning, which simultaneously minimizes exposure to traffic related air pollution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Melbourne branch of the Royal Mint officially opened in 1872. Built on a site that had previously accommodated Melbourne’s original Exhibition Hall, the complex comprised the extant Administration Building and flanking Guardhouses and substantial “operative departments” to the rear. The latter were demolished in the early 1970s but recent investigations have revealed that substantial remains survive. This paper discusses our new appreciation of the Mint’s archaeology – one of an increasing number of Melbourne archaeological sites where subsurface deposits are supplementing our knowledge of places long acknowledged for the importance of their built heritage. The remains reveal important evidence relating to the minting process and responses to industrial urban air pollution in the nineteenth century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A hypothesis that air pollution in the form of small particles has caused a secular decrease in precipitation over South East (SE) Australia was advanced by Rosenfeld (2000) , who concluded that the hypothesis was proven. This paper critically reviews the experimental design used in that paper and subsequent work presented in Rosenfeld (2006). It is shown that the meteorological conditions on the single day studied were inappropriate for testing the hypothesis, as was the synoptic weather pattern. Moreover, the study failed to consider prior published work in Australia and readily available independent data such as rainfall patterns that call into question the approach used. We conclude that the experimental design was incapable of addressing the hypothesis, which therefore remains unproven. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transport sector in general, and trucks in particular, generates a significant amount of emissions in Australia. It appears the trend will escalate unless different measures are taken to reduce the reliance of freight transport on trucks. This paper discusses the benefits of distribution centres as a means to reduce road congestion, increase safety, protect the environment by reducing atmospheric pollution and improve freight distribution. It also provides the effective use of the existing rail network and its infrastructure and improves the lead-time as well as lowering the cost of transportation of cargo. It also investigates the positive impact of distribution centres located near to manufacturing and farming production units. A simulation model has been developed and used to help determine the amount of atmospheric pollution produced by two modes of land transport, rail and road, for the movement of containers between port and destination. Results derived from the model provide evidence about a preferred land-transport regime. The paper has two sections: (1) the role of distribution centres in the chain of transport and (2) the impact of distribution centres on the environment. The first section investigates the feasibility of the implementation of distribution centres in the State of Victoria with respect to rail line capacity and location allocation. The second section presents an additional simulation model that investigates the role of a distribution centre in relation to the amount of atmospheric pollution produced by rail and road, while containers are carried between port and destination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents new evidence of the causal effect of air pollution on Australian health outcomes, using the Black Saturday bushfires (BSB) in 2009 as a natural experiment. This event was one of the largest bushfires in Australian history and emitted approximately four million tonnes of CO 2 into the atmosphere. We use data from the Household Income and Labour Dynamic Australia (HILDA) panel and compare the health status of individuals who were living in affected and unaffected regions before and after the event. Using a triple differences procedure, we further examine whether a difference in vulnerability to bushfire smoke exists comparing people living in urban or regional areas. We find that ambient air pollution had significant negative effects on health and that the magnitudes were actually larger for individuals residing in urban areas. • Examine the causal effect of air pollution on health from Australian bushfires. • Individuals exposed to pollutants had significantly poorer health outcomes. • Robust deficits appear across various objective and subjective health indicators. • People in major cities are more affected, likely from pre-existing pollutant exposure. • Results also vary by markers of socioeconomic status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

More timely and accurate air quality forecasting could contribute to better public health protection and air pollution prevention. Particulates are a significant indicator for measuring the degree of air pollution. This paper reports on research to model an early warning tool for coarse particulates when assessing the impact of the 12 satellite-derived and ground-based meteorological pollutants out of 30 pollutants considered using hourly Australian data from January 2018–December 2020. A one-dimensional convolutional neural network (CNN) was integrated with a one-directional fully gated recurrent unit (GRU) to forecast consecutive hours' air quality. The CNN model acts as a spatial feature extractor, whereas the new generation GRU makes it computationally efficient. The resultant hybrid ' CNN-GRU' is then comprehensively benchmarked outperforming an ensemble of six other deep learning models. The proposed model's efficacy is indicated at the four most air polluted Australian postcodes in the testing phase. A detailed error analysis with visual and statistical metrics for air quality forecasting ascertains the proposed model's countermeasure to reduce harm and loss. The practical tool is immensely beneficial and can be widely deployed to the regions of public health concern where air pollution is a significant hazard. [Display omitted] • A novel early warning hybrid PM10 forecasting framework designed for Australia. • 30 satellite and ground-based meteorological pollutants were considered with 7 modeling approaches. • CNN integrated with GRU outperformed the other models. • Early warning AI model show potential in the health, environment sector, and decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has not yet been established whether the spatial variation of particle number concentration (PNC) within a microscale environment can have an effect on exposure estimation results. In general, the degree of spatial variation within microscale environments remains unclear, since previous studies have only focused on spatial variation within macroscale environments. The aims of this study were to determine the spatial variation of PNC within microscale school environments, in order to assess the importance of the number of monitoring sites on exposure estimation. Furthermore, this paper aims to identify which parameters have the largest influence on spatial variation as well as the relationship between those parameters and spatial variation. Air quality measurements were conducted for two consecutive weeks at each of the 25 schools across Brisbane, Australia. PNC was measured at three sites within the grounds of each school, along with the measurement of meteorological and several other air quality parameters. Traffic density was recorded for the busiest road adjacent to the school. Spatial variation at each school was quantified using coefficient of variation (CV). The portion of CV associated with instrument uncertainty was found to be 0.3, and, therefore, CV was corrected so that only noninstrument uncertainty was analyzed in the data. The median corrected CV (CVc) ranged from 0 to 0.35 across the schools, with 12 schools found to exhibit spatial variation. The study determined the number of required monitoring sites at schools with spatial variability and tested the deviation in exposure estimation arising from using only a single site. Nine schools required two measurement sites and three schools required three sites. Overall, the deviation in exposure estimation from using only one monitoring site was as much as 1 order of magnitude. The study also tested the association of spatial variation with wind speed/direction and traffic density, using partial correlation coefficients to identify sources of variation and nonparametric function estimation to quantify the level of variability. Traffic density and road to school wind direction were found to have a positive effect on CVc and, therefore, also on spatial variation. Wind speed was found to have a decreasing effect on spatial variation when it exceeded a threshold of 1.5 (m/s), while it had no effect below this threshold. Traffic density had a positive effect on spatial variation and its effect increased until it reached a density of 70 vehicles per five minutes, at which point its effect plateaued and did not increase further as a result of increasing traffic density. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective This paper considers the evidence on whether outdoor secondhand smoke (SHS) is present in hospitality venues at high levels enough to potentially pose health risks, particularly among employees. Data sources Searches in PubMed and Web of Science included combinations of environmental tobacco smoke, secondhand smoke, or passive smoke AND outdoor, yielding 217 and 5,199 results, respectively through June, 2012. Study selection Sixteen studies were selected that reported measuring any outdoor SHS exposures ( particulate matter (PM) or other SHS indicators). Data extraction The SHS measurement methods were assessed for inclusion of extraneous variables that may affect levels or the corroboration of measurements with known standards. Data synthesis The magnitude of SHS exposure (PM2.5) depends on the number of smokers present, measurement proximity, outdoor enclosures, and wind. Annual excess PM2.5 exposure of full-time waitstaff at outdoor smoking environments could average 4.0 to 12.2 µg/m3 under variable smoking conditions. Conclusions Although highly transitory, outdoor SHS exposures could occasionally exceed annual ambient air quality exposure guidelines. Personal monitoring studies of waitstaff are warranted to corroborate these modeled estimates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The estimated gap in life expectancy (LE) between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians was 12 years for men and 10 years for women, whereas the Northern Territory Indigenous LE gap was at least 50% greater than the national figures. This study aims to explain the Indigenous LE gap by common modifiable risk factors. Methods: This study covered the period from 1986 to 2005. Unit record death data from the Northern Territory were used to assess the differences in LE at birth between the Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations by socioeconomic disadvantage, smoking, alcohol abuse, obesity, pollution, and intimate partner violence. The population attributable fractions were applied to estimate the numbers of deaths associated with the selected risks. The standard life table and cause decomposition technique was used to examine the individual and joint effects on health inequality. Results: The findings from this study indicate that among the selected risk factors, socioeconomic disadvantage was the leading health risk and accounted for one-third to one-half of the Indigenous LE gap. A combination of all six selected risks explained over 60% of the Indigenous LE gap. Conclusions: Improving socioeconomic status, smoking cessation, and overweight reduction are critical to closing the Indigenous LE gap. This paper presents a useful way to explain the impact of risk factors of health inequalities, and suggests that reducing poverty should be placed squarely at the centre of the strategies to close the Indigenous LE gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

CSIRO's contribution to the educational and community AirWatch program included a 'filter soiling' technique for measuring airborne particle concentrations. This paper (i) describes the robust calibration process underlying the technique, (ii) shows that the technique actually measures black carbon concentrations rather than overall particulate matter concentrations, (iii) compares the results with a European black smoke calibration, demonstrating that the latter has been adjusted by a factor of two to account for organic components, and (iv) compares AirWatch measurements with ANSTO measurements of carbon and particles during the Australian Fine Particles Study (1999: http :l/www.cmar.csiro.au/e-printlopen/ CSIRO_AFRpdf), showing good agreement with the sophisticated measurements of elemental carbon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: One key initiative to reducing the environmental impact of motor vehicles is to identify the number and types of vehicle in the vehicle stock which are likely to excessively contribute to air pollution. Such an assessment is dependent on quantifying vehicle scrappage which, in turn, relies on the provision of temporally consistent motor vehicle registration data. There exist a number of issues that adversely impact on the temporal accuracy of motor vehicle registration data. This paper identifies these issues and proposes a cost effective correction framework for motor vehicle registration time series data. An application to Australian data is used to demonstrate the efficacy of the framework, identifying the need to introduce an additional vehicle category into the data, adjusting annual vehicle counts and removing the erroneous incidence of the number of vehicles in a vintage class that increase substantially beyond 2years after the year of manufacture. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Recent acknowledgement of the sensitivity of air quality to changes in climate has initiated a closer examination of the relationships between meteorology and air quality. This paper presents the estimated response of daily air pollutant concentrations in Melbourne, Australia to local-scale meteorology. The meteorological-pollutant relationships have been assessed after controlling for long-term trends, seasonality, weekly emissions, spatial variation, and temporal persistence using the framework of generalized additive models (GAMs). Overall, results found that the aggregate impact of meteorological variables in the models explained 26.3% of the variance in O3, 21.1% in PM10, and 26.7% in NO2. This indicates that meteorology – at the local-scale, is a relatively strong driver of air quality in Melbourne. Analysis of partial residuals plots found that changes in temperature, particularly when above 35 °C, resulted in the strongest positive response for O3 (150%), PM10 (150%) and NO2 (120%). Other variables (boundary layer height, winds, water vapor pressure, radiation, precipitation, and mean sea-level pressure) displayed some importance for one or more of the pollutants, but their impact in the models was less pronounced. In sum, we provide results that form a solid foundation for understanding the importance of local-scale meteorology as a driver of regional air pollution. Additionally, these results can be used to provide a window into how changes in climate may affect air quality. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Prescribed fires are conducted each year across Australia for fuel management and/or ecological reasons. In some regions, during the period of intensive prescribed burning, large quantities of hazardous air contaminants may be emitted and may exceed urban air quality guidelines. The impact on community health will depend on what hazardous pollutants the population is exposed to, the levels of exposures and the potential for such exposures to cause adverse health effects among the community. The paper will discuss findings from a review- of Australian and international literature regarding implications of exposure to bushfire smoke 'air toxics' on community health. Most studies have been on large fires, whether accidental or during forest clearing activities with little to no research on community health and air toxics exposures downwind of prescribed fires. The review- has shown that the primary pollutant consistently exceeding air quality guidelines downwind of large bushfires was particulate matter, but it also highlighted that there is clearly a need to further investigate the effects of bushfire on public health. Some of the issues to be addressed include • Monitoring the seasonal exposure of communities to hazardous pollutants released during prescribed burning activities and determining major factors that influence exposure levels • Assessing the health implications of such exposures, especially in relation to existing (urban) air quality measures or by developing a bushfire air quality index as a tool for better risk management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emissions from feedlot operations are known to vary by environmental conditions and few if any techniques or models exist to predict the variability of odor emission rates from feedlots. The purpose of this paper is to outline and summarize unpublished reports that are the result of a collective effort to develop industry-specific odor impact criteria for Australian feedlots. This effort used over 250 olfactometry samples collected with a wind tunnel and past research to develop emission models for pads, sediment basins, holding ponds, and manure storage areas over a range of environmental conditions and tested using dynamic olfactometry. A process was developed to integrate these emission models into odor dispersion modeling for the development of impact criteria. The approach used a feedlot hydrology model to derive daily feedlot pad moisture, temperature, and thickness. A submodel converted these daily data to hourly data. A feedlot pad emissions model was developed that predicts feedlot pad emissions as a function of temperature, moisture content, and pad depth. Emissions from sediment basins and holding ponds were predicted using a basin emissions model as a function of days since rain, inflow volume, inflow ratio (pond volume), and temperature. This is the first attempt to model all odor source emissions from a feedlot as variable hourly emissions on the basis of climate, management, and site-specific conditions. Results from the holding pond, sediment basin, and manure storage emission models performed well, but additional work on the pad emissions model may be warranted. This methodology mimics the variable odor emissions and odor impact expected from feedlots due to climate and management effects. The main outcome of the work is the recognition that an industry-specific odor impact criterion must be expressed in terms of all of the components of the assessment methodology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Australia the study of condensation nuclei (CN, or Aitken nuclei), cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) and ice nuclei (IN) commenced more than half a century ago. This work was spurred on as part of a national cloud physics research program by the prospect of artificial weather modification for precipitation enhancement. The post-war period from the late 1940s through the 1950s in Australia was one of great optimism. Natural resources seemed almost limitless, as did economic growth and `progress', in which science would surely solve any problems faced by society along the way, and burgeoning technology would deliver those solutions. For many in this optimistic age, artificial weather modification was just another scientific and technological success in the making, needing only a little more research to make it happen. More than five decades on, that hoped- for promise remains elusive. Late in 2003 the US National Academies Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate (BASC, 2003) released its most recent and comprehensive report on the state of the relevant science (entitled Critical Issues in Weather Modification Research). While supporting the scientific rationale underlying weather modification research, a headline conclusion was `The committee concludes that there is still no convincing scientific proof of the efficacy of intentional weather modification efforts.' A conclusion only slightly more optimistic was published in Australia prior to the US report, in an unrelated review by one of the pioneers of cloud microphysics, Neville Fletcher (author of the first comprehensive text book on cloud physics, The Physics of Rainclouds, published in 1962). The refractory nature of this issue underscores the difficulties inherent in understanding and modelling the processes of atmosphere-aerosol-cloud-precipitation interaction in sufficient detail over large enough scales to yield a whole-of-system predictive capacity. Faced with this fact, cloud microphysics as a discipline within atmospheric sciences spent time in the doldrums through the `80s and `90s, but has come back into vogue in the past decade. While the research drivers have moved from intentional, to inadvertent weather modification, the complexity of the processes under study remains, as does the difficulty of translating sometimes equivocal research results into language that resonates with government and highly sensitised and often critical segments of the general community. These issues have been faced in Australia throughout the past fifty years by those in the scientific community engaged in research that has underpinned national weather modification efforts. This paper reviews scientific knowledge gained in Australia during that time concerning aerosol and aerosol-cloud interaction, and points to lessons learned about the translation of the science into community-relevant information - the latter is an issue that remains to be addressed within contexts such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and underpinning international research programs such as those sponsored by the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) and the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews research conducted in the past two decades in urban-scale air quality modelling in Australia and New Zealand, with emphasis on prognostic models. With advances in computer technology - especially desktop computers - air pollution dispersion modelling is now a feasible undertaking not only for well - funded research institutions, but also for air quality consultants. It has been suggested that as prognostic models become more user friendly they will eventually replace Gaussian dispersion models as a tool for urban air quality impact assessment. However, for now, Gaussian models are still widely used. Prognostic dispersion models have been applied to a number of Australian and New Zealand urban regions with relative success. ln Australia, the major focus has been in simulating photochemical smog episodes. In contrast, New Zealand studies have mostly dealt with nocturnal dispersion of particulate matter during stagnant weather conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poor air quality poses a risk to human health, particularly to those people suffering cardiovascular illness. In this paper, we survey a range of techniques used in Australia and internationally to forecast air quality. The levels of technology used in Australia appear to be comparable to those used internationally and the accuracy of the best Australian forecast results is comparable to the best internationally. Based on this survey, we recommend that future work in Australia should be directed towards unifying the methods of displaying and reporting the forecast results. Secondly, techniques need to be developed to blend different types of forecasts using fuzzy neural network techniques. Thirdly, we need to consider the use of ensemble forecasts and model-data fusion to reduce forecast uncertainty and to provide an estimate of forecast error. The implementation of such a major program would require a nation-wide, coordinated research effort to develop new models and to provide improved methodologies of assessment of the impacts of pollution (such as directly predicting rates of mortality); to develop strategies for reduction of pollution; and to strengthen the interface between air quality science and those charged with the responsibility for air quality regulation and downstream clients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alcoa World Alumina Australia has undertaken comprehensive air emissions monitoring aimed at characterising and quantifying the complete range of emissions to the atmosphere from Bayer refining of alumina at its Western Australian refineries. To the best of our knowledge, this project represents the most complete air emissions inventory of a Bayer refinery conducted in the worldwide alumina industry. It adds considerably to knowledge of air emission factors available for use in emissions estimation required under national pollutant release and transfer registers (NPRTs), such as the Toxic Releases Inventory, USA, and the National Pollutant Inventory, Australia. It also allows the preliminary identification of the key chemical components responsible for characteristic alumina refinery odours and the contribution of these components to the quality, or hedonic tone, of the odours. The strength and acceptability of refinery odours to employees and neighbours appears to be dependent upon where and in what proportion the odorous gases have been emitted from the refineries. This paper presents the results of the programme and develops a basis for classifying the odour properties of the key emission sources in the alumina-refining process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impact of air pollution on community health is the major reason for controlling pollution emissions to the atmosphere. Improvements in air quality are believed to result in substantial reductions in health related costs. Focusing on fine particles, this paper looks at the association between air pollution and health as evidenced by outcomes of epidemiological studies of daily mortality rates and morbidity data. Exposure to very high pollutant concentrations occurred in the industrial smogs that took place up to the 1960s and the health effects were obvious and dramatic. However, can health effects still be discerned at the particle levels typical of modern urban regions? In the absence of influenza or other epidemics, the major influence on mortality rates is meteorology. This influence is poorly understood and leads to a high degree of uncertainty in demonstrating any association between air pollution and health, even with the use of sophisticated statistical techniques. Reservations are expressed about the statistical procedures which, despite their sophisticated nature, may overstate any association between health and air quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monitoring the level of pollution generated by both planned and unplanned vegetation fires is a fundamental requirement for assessing human health impacts, informing public health actions, and ensuring that regulatory requirements are met. The issue is of growing importance because of the increasing use of 'prescribed burning' - the planned setting of fires under mild weather conditions to reduce fuel loads and therefore lower fire intensities from unplanned vegetation fires. This practice often causes the pooling of smoke in airsheds and thus conflicts with air quality statutes. In this paper, we review biomass smoke monitoring practices in Australia and North America. In North America, air quality has enormous influence over planned burning and consequently there has been considerable investment and development in the monitoring of smoke emissions from fires. In Australia, the monitoring of particulate pollution has been focused on urban and industrial areas. Samplers used for this purpose may not be appropriate for measuring smoke from bushfires due to long averaging times and non-real-time data reporting. Drawing on North American approaches we suggest that Australian populations in fire prone areas would benefit from improved management of smoke pollution from both planned and unplanned fires by increased use of (a) simple local guidelines based on the visibility of landmarks, (b) portable and mobile samplers with real-time reporting of pollution levels via the internet, and (c) dissemination of smoke forecasts using predictive smoke dispersal modelling. Benefits of more temporally and spatially accurate data include (a) more appropriate tools and greater capacity to support public health responses to pollution episodes, (b) improved monitoring of planned burns, and (c) better validation of predictive dispersion models. Ultimately this will provide an appropriate knowledge-base for the development of prescribed burning policies, guidelines and practices for the overall benefit of public health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a summary of the key findings of the special issue of Atmosphere on Air Quality in New South Wales and discusses the implications of the work for policy makers and individuals. This special edition presents new air quality research in Australia undertaken by (or in association with) the Clean Air and Urban Landscapes hub, which is funded by the National Environmental Science Program on behalf of the Australian Government's Department of the Environment and Energy. Air pollution in Australian cities is generally low, with typical concentrations of key pollutants at much lower levels than experienced in comparable cities in many other parts of the world. Australian cities do experience occasional exceedances in ozone and PM2.5 (above air pollution guidelines), as well as extreme pollution events, often as a result of bushfires, dust storms, or heatwaves. Even in the absence of extreme events, natural emissions play a significant role in influencing the Australian urban environment, due to the remoteness from large regional anthropogenic emission sources. By studying air quality in Australia, we can gain a greater understanding of the underlying atmospheric chemistry and health risks in less polluted atmospheric environments, and the health benefits of continued reduction in air pollution. These conditions may be representative of future air quality scenarios for parts of the Northern Hemisphere, as legislation and cleaner technologies reduce anthropogenic air pollution in European, American, and Asian cities. However, in many instances, current legislation regarding emissions in Australia is significantly more lax than in other developed countries, making Australia vulnerable to worsening air pollution in association with future population growth. The need to avoid complacency is highlighted by recent epidemiological research, reporting associations between air pollution and adverse health outcomes even at air pollutant concentrations that are lower than Australia's national air quality standards. Improving air quality is expected to improve health outcomes at any pollution level, with specific benefits projected for reductions in long-term exposure to average PM2.5 concentrations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports that Environment Ministers from various countries took action on waste, water and air pollution on July 1, 2005 at the 11th meeting of the Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC) in Perth, Western Australia. The EPHC is made up of ministers from state and territory governments in Australia, the New Zealand Government and the Papua New Guinea Government. The council noted a phase-out agreement from the Australian Retailers Association, seeking supportive legislation to eliminate plastic bags from January 2009. The draft agreement would see retailers working to phase out the use of lightweight plastic carry bags by the end of 2008. The ministers agreed to initiate the development of a National Environment Protection Measure for Product Stewardship to help industry reduce waste from everyday consumer products like televisions and computers. EPHC announced the start of a nationally-based study of the relationship between air quality and child health in Australia. The ministers agreed to support the development of best practice reporting and public disclosure of greenhouse gas emissions and abatement.

The article reports on the details of the key low emissions program announced in the Australian Government's Energy White Paper last year. The $500 million Low Emissions Technology Demonstration Fund (LETDF) is being established to stimulate greater investment in demonstrating low-emission technologies across the full spectrum of energy sources. Federal Industry Minister Ian Macfarlane and Environment Minister Senator Ian Campbell announced draft guidelines for the fund will be publicly available and industry forums will be held for feedback before the guidelines are finalised. The fund is likely to drive total investment of more than $1.5 billion in cleaner technologies ranging from renewable energies to more conventional fuel sources. The LETDF key eligibility criterion is an ability to potentially deliver significant greenhouse abatement, with commercial uptake in the long-term. Funding assistance is available for up to 15 years. Australia's abundant reserves of fossil fuels and increasing energy use makes it imperative for Australia to investigate and implement technological solutions that reduce emissions from the energy sector.