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In times of growing concern about the impacts of air pollution across the globe, lower-cost sensor technology is giving the first steps in helping to enhance our understanding and ability to manage air quality issues, particularly in regions without established monitoring networks. While the benefits of greater spatial coverage and real-time measurements that these systems offer are evident, challenges still need to be addressed regarding sensor reliability and data quality. Given the limitations imposed by intellectual property, commercial implementations are often "black boxes", which represents an extra challenge as it limits end users' understanding of the data production process. In this paper we present an overview of the QUANT (Quantification of Utility of Atmospheric Network Technologies) study, a comprehensive 3-year assessment across a range of urban environments in the United Kingdom, evaluating 43 sensor devices, including 119 gas sensors and 118 particulate matter (PM) sensors, from multiple companies. QUANT stands out as one of the most comprehensive studies of commercial air quality sensor systems carried out to date, encompassing a wide variety of companies in a single evaluation and including two generations of sensor technologies. Integrated into an extensive dataset open to the public, it was designed to provide a long-term evaluation of the precision, accuracy and stability of commercially available sensor systems. To attain a nuanced understanding of sensor performance, we have complemented commonly used single-value metrics (e.g. coefficient of determination, R2 ; root mean square error, RMSE; mean absolute error, MAE) with visual tools. These include regression plots, relative expanded uncertainty (REU) plots and target plots, enhancing our analysis beyond traditional metrics. This overview discusses the assessment methodology and key findings showcasing the significance of the study. While more comprehensive analyses are reserved for future detailed publications, the results shown here highlight the significant variation between systems, the incidence of corrections made by manufacturers, the effects of relocation to different environments and the long-term behaviour of the systems. Additionally, the importance of accounting for uncertainties associated with reference instruments in sensor evaluations is emphasised. Practical considerations in the application of these sensors in real-world scenarios are also discussed, and potential solutions to end-user data challenges are presented. Offering key information about the sensor systems' capabilities, the QUANT study will serve as a valuable resource for those seeking to implement commercial solutions as complementary tools to tackle air pollution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The spatially misaligned data problem occurs when data at different spatial scales need to be combined. Bayesian hierarchical models such as melding and downscaler approaches are suitable to solve this problem but their application is limited when MCMC is used for inference due to the high computational cost. The use of INLA and SPDE represents an alternative to MCMC for Bayesian inference that enables faster inference for latent Gaussian models. In this paper, we describe how INLA and SPDE can be adapted to fit Bayesian melding and downscaler models to combine spatially misaligned data. We assess the performance of the models using simulated and real data in a range of scenarios and sampling strategies and compare the suitability of the models in each situation. We also show how to obtain fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) predictions in the UK at a continuous surface and at policy-relevant spatial scales by combining spatially misaligned monitoring station data, satellite-derived indicators, road information, and environmental factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We need energy. But what are potential solutions to achieving net zero? This paper presents a Christian perspective and overview of nuclear energy in the UK, and other countries, within the context of government policies to achieve net-zero emissions while ensuring national security. The growth of renewables is well-known but nuclear energy’s positive contribution is often unrecognised in our energy mix for producing electricity. Nuclear provides clean, low-carbon baseload electricity and has its place alongside variable renewables in tackling climate change. Besides large reactors, small modular reactors (SMRs) are being considered within energy strategies. Beyond electricity generation, future nuclear plants offer cogeneration. Furthermore, nuclear plants do not create the air pollution associated with fossil-fuel emissions. This paper encourages people to become more informed about the place of nuclear energy by looking at an evidence-based approach and encourages discussion in an open, honest, and respectful way about its merits in protecting people and our planet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Debates about how best to support students' transition from school to university have re-emerged periodically since at least the 1970s. This paper focuses upon one aspect of this transition: how to develop the quantitative skills students acquire at school throughout the first year of their degree. We report on an attempt to inject pedagogic innovation into the teaching of quantitative methods to first-year geography undergraduates at a large Russell Group university in the UK. More specifically, we report on moving to a pedagogic approach of student-centred, inquiry-based learning, which uses quantitative methods to investigate the issue of air pollution. We explore whether "statistical anxiety" is still a common experience of undergraduate geographers and the extent to which pedagogical innovation can help to alleviate this. Although the focus is on UK Geography, the paper has wider relevance to anywhere geographical research methods are taught. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In times of growing concern about the impacts of air pollution across the globe, lower-cost sensor technology is giving the first steps in helping to enhance our understanding and ability to manage air quality issues. While the benefits of greater spatial coverage and real-time measurements that these systems offer are evident, challenges still need to be addressed regarding sensor reliability and data quality. Given the limitations imposed by intellectual property, commercial implementations are often "black boxes", which represents an extra challenge as it limits end-users' understanding of the data production process. In this paper we present an overview of the QUANT (Quantification of Utility of Atmospheric Network Technologies) study, a comprehensive 3-year assessment across a range of urban environments in the United Kingdom. QUANT stands out as one of the most comprehensive studies of commercial air quality sensor systems carried out to date, encompassing a wide variety of companies in a single evaluation and including two generations of sensor technologies. Integrated into an extensive data set open to the public, it was designed to provide a long-term evaluation of the precision, accuracy, and stability of commercially available sensor systems. This overview discusses the assessment methodology, and key findings showcasing the significance of the study. The results shown here highlight the significant variation between systems, the incidence of corrections made by manufacturers, the effects of relocation to different environments and the long-term behaviour of the systems. Additionally, the importance of accounting for uncertainties associated with reference instruments in sensor evaluations is emphasised. Practical considerations in the application of these sensors in real-world scenarios are also discussed, and potential solutions to end-users data challenges are presented. Offering key information about the sensor systems' capabilities the QUANT study will serve as a valuable resource for those seeking to implement commercial solutions as complementary tools to tackle air pollution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Implementation outcomes of the Ambient Air Quality Directive (AAQD) (2008/50/EC)) are weak across European Union (EU) member states. In the UK, Local Authorities (LAs) must work toward reducing air pollution, however, means of assessing the extent and effectiveness of their contribution are limited. This paper develops a framework to evaluate policies implemented by UK LAs to address air pollution and applies it to Air Quality Action Plans (AQAP) of five cities. It looks at how, and the extent to which, LA air quality policies align with AAQD requirements, thus advancing empirical and academic knowledge on implementation literature surrounding multi-level governance, specifically the policy disconnect between the AAQD and UK Local Air Quality Management (LAQM). The application of the framework shows how LAs can better integrate AQAPs into their LAQM plans to assess, develop, improve and implement their air quality policies on the ground. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A 16-year update on the first UK environmental justice air quality study is given. • Emissions for private vehicles are attributed to census area of registered keeper. • Social inequalities in traffic-related pollution exposure are clearer and stronger. • Young children, adults, and households in poverty have highest levels of exposure. • A strong inverse relationship was found between poverty and emissions generation. This paper presents unique spatial analyses identifying substantial discrepancies in traffic-related emissions generation and exposure by socioeconomic and demographic groups. It demonstrates a compelling environmental and social injustice narrative with strong policy implications for the UK and beyond. In the first instance, this research presents a decadal update for England and Wales to Mitchell and Dorling's 2003 analysis of environmental justice in the UK. Using 2011 UK Government pollution and emissions data with 2011 UK Census socioeconomic and demographic data based on small area census geographies, this paper demonstrates a stronger relationship between age, poverty, road NO x emissions and exposure to NO 2 concentrations. Areas with the highest proportions of under-fives and young adults, and poorer households, have the highest concentrations of traffic-related pollution. In addition, exclusive access to UK annual vehicle safety inspection records ('MOT' tests) allowed annual private vehicle NO x emissions to be spatially attributed to registered keepers. Areal analysis against Census-based socioeconomic characteristics identified that households in the poorest areas emit the least NO x and PM, whilst the least poor areas emitted the highest, per km, vehicle emissions per household through having higher vehicle ownership, owning more diesel vehicles and driving further. In conclusion, the analysis indicates that, despite more than a decade of air quality policy, environmental injustice of air pollution exposure has worsened. New evidence regarding the responsibility for generation of road traffic emissions provides a clear focus for policy development and targeted implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The long-term field experiments at Rothamsted in south-east England (UK) are an important resource that has been used extensively to study the effects of land management, atmospheric pollution and climate change on soil fertility and the sustainability of crop yields. However, for these and other long-term experiments around the world to remain useful, changes are sometimes needed. These changes may be required to ensure that the experiment is not compromised by e.g. acidification or weeds, but often they are needed to ensure that the experiment remains relevant to current agricultural practice, e.g. the introduction of new cultivars and the judicious use of pesticides. However, changes should not be made just for the sake of change or to investigate aspects of management that could be better resolved in a short-term experiment. Rather, modifications should only be made after carefully considered discussion, involving scientists from different disciplines. It must be remembered however that there are limitations to what can be achieved in one experiment. In this paper we give examples of why certain changes were made to the Rothamsted experiments and what the results of those changes have been. We also highlight the value of archiving crop and soil samples for future studies. • The management of Rothamsted's long-term experiments (LTEs) is discussed. • The effects of that management on soil fertility and crop yields are considered. • The need for changes to LTEs to ensure their continued relevance is emphasised. • Reasons for changes to Rothamsted's LTEs and the results of those changes are given. • The value of archived soil and crop samples is highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Failure to take climate change seriously enough has resulted in the world now facing a climate emergency, with rising global temperatures, melting polar ice caps, increasingly frequent and severe storms, floods and droughts, and rising sea levels. Despite being the first country in the world to set statutory carbon emissions reduction targets (in the Climate Change Act 2008), the UK government since 2012 has fallen increasingly behind, even by its own standards. This paper details what this has meant in terms of specific policies and identifies some of the reasons for this policy failure: in particular, a negative attitude towards regulation and a return to a reliance on market forces, plus an overriding concern to continue with 'business as usual', in terms of support for fossil-fuel industries and ever-increasing energy demand and supply. Ironically, this has resulted in a situation where radical solutions seem even more necessary and more urgent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the paper "Air Quality Impacts of Climate Mitigation: U. K. Policy and Passenger Vehicle Choice," by Eric A. Mazzi and Hadi Dowlatabadi. This paper was awarded with the top paper award under the environmental policy category for the Best Paper Awards of the journal "Environmental Science & Technology." It analyzes the increasing number of diesel cars which unintentionally released higher amounts of ambient particular matter. The study found that this ambient air pollution is capable to create climate change issues with air quality. Furthermore, this study concludes that carbon tax will happen when policy makers will only focus on climate change.

This paper provides an empirical examination on the interactions among macroeconomic policies, the energy market and environmental quality. The analysis is conducted for two non-EMU countries, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, over the period 1990–2016. We propose two distinct VAR models based on a macroeconomic framework including the energy market. The study evaluates the dynamic effects of shocks to fiscal and monetary policy on the energy market and environmental quality. We identify four policy shocks: (i) government consumption (ii) public investment (iii) the official bank policy rate (iv) the central bank's reserve assets. The empirical analysis reveals that fiscal and monetary policies have a significant influence on the energy market and environmental quality. Our findings indicate that fiscal policy, besides its primary role in stabilizing economic activity, can contribute to achieving non-renewable energy conservation and enhancing environmental quality. On the other hand, the examination of monetary policy reveals that central banks should investigate the impact of their interventions on the energy market and incorporate environmental issues in their welfare maximization problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines how interviews with outdoor recreational runners can help us understand how urban air pollution insinuates itself into the consciousness of those who may be breathing more polluted air than most. It begins by making the case for why studies of air pollution perception might turn to the subjectivities associated with taking part in relevant social practices. Then, with reference to debate about the extent to which groups of exercisers are thinking about certain aspects of what is physically happening during their exercise, we examine how outdoor recreational runners in London talk about the air that they breathe when running. We might imagine that this group would be particularly alive to urban air pollution in view of a presumed interest in physical performance and a personal history of running through various bodies of city air. However, through close scrutiny of their running talk, this paper documents how and why the suggestion of breathing polluted air is often placed beyond the realm of conscious thought for them during their runs. These findings point to particular strategies for encouraging healthy urban lifestyles and illustrate the potential of further studies on how social practices shape pollution perceptions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The UK Environmental Change Network (ECN), the UK's Long-Term Ecosystem Research (LTER) network, has now been operating for over twenty years. It was established in 1992 as a set of terrestrial sites at which sustained observations relevant to a range of ecological indicators and environmental parameters could be made. An additional ECN freshwater network was launched in 1994. In this paper we provide a brief history of the network, and describe its current structure and role within a complementary wider range of UK environmental monitoring and observation programmes that are either more focussed on specific parameters or habitats, or operate at different temporal and spatial scales. We then provide a review of the other papers within this Special Issue, which exemplifies the broad range of environmental concerns that ECN data and sites are helping to address. These include network-wide summaries of environmental and biological trends over the first two decades of monitoring, more site-specific assessment of the ecological impacts of local pressures resulting from changes in management, biological and ecosystem service indicator development, and the testing of new monitoring technologies. We go on to consider: (i) future directions of network development and adaptation in light of recently emerging environmental concerns, dwindling financial resources and the consequent need for greater efficiency; (ii) the desire for tighter integration with other monitoring and observation programmes both nationally internationally; (iii) opportunities raised by recent technological developments; and (iv) the need to process and make available data more rapidly to increase the capacity of ECN sites as early warning systems. In its first two decades of operation the ECN has accumulated a robust set of baseline data that describe environmental and biological variability across a range of habitats in unprecedented detail. With appropriate, informed development, these should prove invaluable in discerning the causes and consequences of environmental change for decades to come. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This paper reports on an investigation of the impact on air-quality of combinations of urban form development scenarios and vehicle fleet technology changes. The scenarios combine policies affecting urban land-use plans within the Cambridge Sub-Region of the UK, alongside technological changes within the projected vehicle fleet. Broadly, the scenarios consist of the 'Trend' for urban form policy and vehicle technology and the urban form policy options of 'Planned expansion', 'Market-led development' and 'Urban compaction', each combined with form-appropriate technological scenarios addressing the uptake of current, and future, technologies in the vehicle fleet. The framework developed for environmental assessment is described, from land-use transport interaction, through traffic assignment and emissions modelling, through to dispersion calculations. The urban form-vehicle technology combinations have been assessed in terms of overall vehicle kilometres travelled (VKT), greenhouse gas (CO 2) emissions, and local air quality (NO x , NO 2 , PM, HC). Results are presented for 2021 and show that overall network emissions change from −13% (Compaction) to +8% (Market-led) relative to the Trend, but effects on emissions in individual districts (NO x) may much greater, −40% to +50%. Annual mean concentrations of NO 2 at the street level may vary by −7 to 8 μg/m3. The use of electric vehicles in the 'Urban compaction' scenario aids mitigation of air quality issues in the city centre. The results are discussed with respect to the feasibility of scenario implementation, current approaches to planning, and trends in vehicle technology. Limitations of the modelling framework are also identified, and future developments outlined. Highlights • Impact on air quality of combinations of urban form and vehicle technology explored • Application of integrated model chain addressing land use-transport-interaction, traffic emission and dispersion modelling • Urban compaction reduces regional GHG (13%) and local air quality emissions (up to 9%). • Expansion and Market-led policies increase regional GHG (7%) and air quality emissions (up to 7%). • Air quality deterioration in urban centres under Compaction occurs but can be offset by technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: exposure to air pollution has been shown to increase risk of inflammatory processes and risk of cardiovascular mortality. Such exposure may therefore also be a risk factor for cognitive impairment/dementia. Method: a systematic review of the literature was conducted with databases searched using keywords for air pollution, cognitive decline and dementia. All identified abstracts and potentially relevant articles were double read. For those papers meeting the inclusion criteria, summary tables were prepared and papers quality assessed. Results: from 1,551 abstracts identified, 10 articles were retrieved of which two were rejected. Of the eight remaining six reported prevalent cognitive assessment with historical pollution exposure and two incident cognitive decline, also with historical pollution exposure. In general, an association was reported between exposure and poorer prevalent measures of cognitive function. Data were mixed for incident cognitive decline with one study finding an association and the other not. Reports were limited by a lack of detailed reporting, use of proxy measures of pollution exposure and a lack of clarity regarding cognitive testing methodology and analysis. Conclusion: this systematic review highlights that there is some evidence of a potential association between air pollution and subsequent cognitive decline. Further work is clearly required and longitudinal analysis of ongoing cohort studies or new research would add much needed clarity to this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The aims of this paper are to review the current practices of car parking standards in the UK, the USA, and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA); to draw the main lessons learned from experiences of the UK and the USA; and to suggest suitable improvements in the standards of car parking requirements in the KSA. The paper follows a comparative approach in reviewing car parking standard requirements according to different types of land use in the UK, the USA, and the KSA. The article illustrates that transportation planners in the UK and the USA use parking policies, especially the application of car parking standards, along with other planning and transport measures to promote sustainable transport choices, to reduce reliance on cars, and to reduce traffic and air pollution. Local authorities in the UK and the USA have moved from requiring minimum standards for car parking to maximum standards. The aim of maximum parking standards is to decrease the number of trips made by private cars whilst seeking to maintain and enhance the viability of economic centres and support sustainable development. In the KSA, authorities still adhere to minimum car parking standards. Moreover, the car parking requirements are not correlated with city zoning systems. The paper concludes with some thoughts on how to improve the current parking requirements in KSA cities. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper examines energy alternatives in the UK and worldwide to reduce CO[sub 2], SO[sub 2], and NO[sub x] emissions up to the year 2020: environmental mechanisms in restructured markets, future energy alternatives, green electricity, energy efficiency, and pricing. At the outset, world energy resources, nonfossil resources, world energy demand, and the role of existing and planned mechanisms to achieve environmental benefits in restructured electricity markets are reviewed. Technological and institutional challenges of real, long-term reductions in carbon dioxide and other emissions from the electric sector are discussed. The paper then focuses on renewable energy in the UK, the green pool, and trends in power marketing considering green pricing programs, and public policy for renewable energy. Considered is trends in energy supply structure: energy consumption and CO[sub 2] release, role of nuclear power, and European efforts for controlling CO[sub 2] emissions. The main part of the paper presents a case study on ensuring future energy alternatives for the UK based on simulations. Tables are presented illustrating basic technological aspects of a number of alternative energy mix strategies devised to meet the UK's electric service requirements where CO[sub 2], SO[sub 2], and NO[sub x] emissions are addressed. They combine the introduction of new natural gas-fired combined-cycle generation with alternate levels of demand side management-predominantly technology driven conservation, and for some of the strategies, wind power, tidal power, and hydro power from Iceland is included. Each class of technologies is phased in during the 20-year study period of 1999-2020. Comparative values for CO[sub 2], SO[sub 2], and NO[sub x]emissions are given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fishing industry is heavily reliant on the use of fossil fuel and emits large quantities of greenhouse gases and other atmospheric pollutants. Methods used to calculate fishing vessel emissions inventories have traditionally utilised estimates of fuel efficiency per unit of catch. These methods have weaknesses because they do not easily allow temporal and geographical allocation of emissions. A large proportion of fishing and other small commercial vessels are also omitted from global shipping emissions inventories such as the International Maritime Organisation's Greenhouse Gas Studies. This paper demonstrates an activity-based methodology for the production of temporally- and spatially-resolved emissions inventories using data produced by Automatic Identification Systems (AIS). The methodology addresses the issue of how to use AIS data for fleets where not all vessels use AIS technology and how to assign engine load when vessels are towing trawling or dredging gear. The results of this are compared to a fuel-based methodology using publicly available European Commission fisheries data on fuel efficiency and annual catch. The results show relatively good agreement between the two methodologies, with an estimate of 295.7 kilotons of fuel used and 914.4 kilotons of carbon dioxide emitted between May 2012 and May 2013 using the activity-based methodology. Different methods of calculating speed using AIS data are also compared. The results indicate that using the speed data contained directly in the AIS data is preferable to calculating speed from the distance and time interval between consecutive AIS data points. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Elevated surface ozone during heatwaves and recent hot summers raises concerns over the potential for climate change to exacerbate ozone air pollution in the UK. In this paper, we perform a robust statistical analysis of four decades worth of daily maximum 8-h (MDA8) ozone measurements from the UK's Automated Urban and Rural Network. A temperature dependent extreme value model is developed to characterise the magnitude and frequency of extreme ozone events and to determine probabilities for ozone exceeding health thresholds, as defined in the UK's air quality index. Our model is found to describe the tails of the MDA8 ozone distributions well at all 119 monitoring sites considered. For the decade 2010–2019, we estimate that >90% of sites have a 1-year MDA8 ozone return level greater than the 'moderate' ozone threshold of 100 μg/m3. We also find that 33% of sites are currently expected to breach the UK government's national air quality objective that MDA8 ozone should not exceed 100 μg/m3 more than ten times per year. We estimate the present overall probability of MDA8 ozone exceeding 100 μg/m3 on a given day to be between <0.1% and 5.4%, depending on site, with averages of 2.7% (rural) and 1.6% (urban background locations). Our analysis reveals a significant decline over time in the likelihood of the UK experiencing extreme ozone episodes, with 1-year return levels in the 1980s now roughly comparable to 10-year return levels in the present. Similarly, probabilities of MDA8 ozone exceeding 100 μg/m3 have decreased by a factor of ∼2–6 since the 1980s in some locations. However, our results also highlight a strong positive temperature dependence to the risk of ozone exceedances. In consequence, increasingly hot summers due to climate change may offset some of these gains. • Extreme value analysis used to quantify probability of UK extreme ozone episodes. • Considerable decline in likelihood of UK experiencing extreme ozone episodes. • Reduced probability of ozone exceeding 'moderate' health threshold (100 μg/m3). • Non-linear increase in risk of extreme ozone with unusually high temperatures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is increasingly understood that the physical environment remains an important determinant of area-level health and spatial and socioeconomic health inequalities. Existing research has largely focused on the health effects of differential access to green space, the proximity of waste facilities, or air pollution. The role of brownfield--or previously developed--land has been largely overlooked. This is the case even in studies that utilise multiple measures of environmental deprivation. This paper presents the results of the first national-scale empirical examination of the association between brownfield land and morbidity and mortality, using data from England. Census Area Statistical ward-level data on the relative proportion of brownfield land (calculated from the 2009 National Land Use Database), standardised morbidity (2001 Census measures of 'not good' general health and limiting long-term illness), and premature (aged under 75 years) all-cause mortality ratios from 1998/99 to 2002/03 were examined using linear mixed modelling (adjusting for potential environmental, socioeconomic, and demographic confounders). A significant and strong, adjusted, area-level association was found between brownfield land and morbidity: people living in wards with a high proportion of brownfield land are significantly more likely to suffer from poorer health than those living in wards with a small proportion of brownfield land. This suggests that brownfield land could potentially be an important and previously overlooked independent environmental determinant of population health in England. The remediation and redevelopment of brownfield land should therefore be considered as a public health policy issue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Impacts on children's health are under-represented in benefits assessments of policies related to ambient air quality and climate change. To complement our previous compilation of concentration-response (C-R) functions for a number of children's health outcomes associated with air pollution, we provide per-case monetary estimates of the same health outcomes. Our goal was to establish per-case monetary estimates for a suite of prevalent children's health outcomes (preterm birth, low birth weight, asthma, autism spectrum disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and IQ reduction) that can be incorporated into benefits assessments of air pollution regulations and climate change mitigation policies. We conducted a systematic review of the literature published between January 1, 2000 and June 30, 2018 to identify relevant economic costs for these six adverse health outcomes in children. We restricted our literature search to studies published in the U.S., with a supplemental consideration of studies from the U.K. and prioritized literature reviews with summary cost estimates and papers that provided lifetime cost of illness estimates. Our literature search and evaluation process reviewed 1065 papers and identified 12 most relevant papers on per-case monetary estimates for preterm birth, low birth weight, asthma, autism spectrum disorder, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Details are presented in full. We separately identified estimates of the lost lifetime earnings associated with the loss of a single IQ point. The final per-case cost estimates for each outcome were selected based on the most robust evidence. These estimates range from $23,573 for childhood asthma not persisting into adulthood to $3,109,096 for a case of autism with a concurrent intellectual disability. To our knowledge, this is the first time that the child-specific health outcomes of preterm birth, low birth weight, asthma, autism spectrum disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and IQ reduction have been systematically valued and presented in one place. This is an important addition to the body of health-related valuation literature as these outcomes have substantial economic costs that are not considered in most assessments of the benefits of air pollution and climate mitigation policies. In general, however, the available per-case estimates presented here did not incorporate the broad societal and long-term costs and are likely underestimates. Although our context has been air pollution and climate policies, the per-case monetary estimates presented here can be applied to other environmental exposures. Fuller assessments of health benefits to children and their corresponding economic gains will improve decision-making on environmental policy. •Children's health is currently under-represented in benefits assessments. •A systematic review produced monetary estimates for six childhood health outcomes. •Though likely underestimates, the costs are substantial. •This is the first time such a compilation of data has been presented. • Our estimates are valuable inputs for environmental and climate policy assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the Government's Energy White Paper of February 2003 intended to set objectives and policy direction for the next two decades and beyond, including cutting CO2 emissions by 60% by 2050, it was decidedly non-committal on the future for nuclear power. This paper looks at the risks of the Energy White Paper strategy, particularly with regard to keeping the nuclear option open. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The motor-vehicle is accountable for emitting a substantial concoction of air quality objective pollutants and carcinogenic hydrocarbons within close proximity to urbanised residential districts. The spatial extent of health impacts associated with road-transport pollutants have traditionally been explored through the examination of artificially created buffers, defined by subjective distances from specified major road links. Within this paper an alternative approach is presented using boundary statistics, which describe naturally occurring shifts of magnitude in socio-environmental and health outcomes across the wider urban area. In contrast, previous distance-threshold investigations have used arbitrarily sized buffers placed upon predetermined locations in response to environmental attributes, without considering the combined influence of additional social burdens. The demographically diverse City of Leicester, situated within the heart of the United Kingdom''s major road-transport network, was selected to showcase such methods. Descriptive multilevel modelling strategies accommodating for generalised spatial structures across Leicester, globally associated issues of deprivation, road-transport emissions and ethnic minorities with increased respiratory risks. Getis-Ord Gi* spatial pattern recognition statistics identified the existence of localised variations, with inner city neighbourhoods tending to house children of ethnic minority groups whom experience disproportionately large environmental and respiratory health burdens. Crisp polygon wombling boundary detection across Leicester appeared to broadly complement the Gi* statistics, identifying naturally occurring boundaries in road-transport emissions to result in elevated children''s respiratory admissions within a distance of 283 m (P < 0.05). The designated threshold was identified to reduce in relation to certain ethnic groups, thus suggesting environmental injustices likely prevail within the model British multicultural City of Leicester. The study''s findings have applications within healthcare management and urban planning for locating vulnerable populaces and for minimising health risks in future road network designs. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Regardless of its intent and purposes, the first decade of the Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) framework had little or no effect in reducing traffic-related air pollution in the UK. Apart from the impact of increased traffic volumes, the major factor attributed to this failure is that of policy disconnect between the process of diagnosing air pollution and its management, thereby limiting the capability of local authorities to control traffic-related sources of air pollution. Integrating air quality management into the Local Transport Plan (LTP) process therefore presents opportunities for enabling political will, funding and joined-up policy approach to reduce this limitation. However, despite the increased access to resources for air quality measures within the LTP process, there are local institutional, political and funding constraints which reduce the impact of these policy interventions on air quality management. This paper illustrate the policy implementation gaps between central government policy intentions and the local government process by providing evidence of the deprioritisation of air quality management compared to the other shared priorities in the LTP process. We draw conclusions on the policy and practice of integrating air quality management into transport planning. The evidence thereby indicate the need for a policy shift from a solely localised hotspot management approach, in which the LAQM framework operates, to a more holistic management of vehicular emissions within wider spatial administrative areas. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The London congestion charging scheme was introduced in 2003 alongside a series of other changes to the transport system, most notably improved bus services. Research on the effects of the scheme usually attributes (often implicitly) all the changes that took place in central London since 2003 to the congestion charging, while the effects of other factors, as well as the effects of trends over time, are not usually (explicitly) considered. This paper revisits the results of the London scheme to examine to what degree observed effects (related to congestion and traffic levels, changes in travel behaviour and air pollution) can be fully or partly attributed to congestion charging. Attention is also given to the amount of revenues the scheme generated. While there is no dispute over the theoretical rationale for introducing congestion charging, the London scheme reveals that questions can be raised with regard to its practical effectiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Abstract: openair is an R package primarily developed for the analysis of air pollution measurement data but which is also of more general use in the atmospheric sciences. The package consists of many tools for importing and manipulating data, and undertaking a wide range of analyses to enhance understanding of air pollution data. In this paper we consider the development of the package with the purpose of showing how air pollution data can be analysed in more insightful ways. Examples are provided of importing data from UK air pollution networks, source identification and characterisation using bivariate polar plots, quantitative trend estimates and the use of functions for model evaluation purposes. We demonstrate how air pollution data can be analysed quickly and efficiently and in an interactive way, freeing time to consider the problem at hand. One of the central themes of openair is the use of conditioning plots and analyses, which greatly enhance inference possibilities. Finally, some consideration is given to future developments. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper considers how energy-related external costs change through time. It focuses on one of the key periods in the history of energy. After a period of declining coal prices and soaring consumption which fuelled the Second Industrial Revolution, the nineteenth century British economy was externalising the social costs of energy production and consumption on a massive scale. Rising from 25% in the 1820s, an estimated 60%–70% of the average social costs of coal were externalised in the 1880s, imposing damages close to 20% of GDP. The eventual decline in air pollution concentration (around 1900) occurred fifty years later than was broadly socially optimal. This experience highlights the evolution of the demand for and supply of environmental quality in the context of economic growth, and the nature of related market and government failures, implying the necessity for adaptation rather than encouraging mitigation. This experience may offer lessons for climate analysis and policy-making. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper demonstrates association of short-term variation in pollution and health outcomes within the same geographical area for a typical urban setting in the northern part of the UK from time series analysis. It utilises publicly available datasets for regulated air pollutants (PM10, NO2, SO2, CO and O3), meteorology and respiratory hospital admissions (and mortality) between April 2002 and December 2005 to estimate the respiratory health effect of pollution exposure, mainly in the elderly. Our results show that PM10 and O3 are positively associated with respiratory hospital admissions in the elderly, specifically in the age group 70–79. CO effects seem to be concentrated on the most elderly age group (80+) whereas NO2 seems to have the opposite age-related effect, with lower effects on the more elderly. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Whilst it has been used since the 1960s, the UK government have promoted bus-based Park and Ride (P&R) particularly heavily over the last 20 years as a tool to deal with traffic congestion and air pollution. There has long since been a view however that P&R in its current guise may actually be exacerbating the problems of traffic congestion, fuel use and emissions instead of mitigating them. This paper aims to reconsider this proposition whilst also testing a range of alternative forms of car–bus interchange in the context of traffic reduction, drawing on evidence from a large survey of P&R users in Cambridge, UK. Overall the results suggest that while current P&R significantly increases the vehicle miles travelled by its users, some of the alternative models presented potentially offer considerable improvements. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Controlling emissions of air pollutants and establishing air quality objectives to improve and protect ambient air quality are very important tasks of Governments. Ozone (O3), one of those pollutants of concern, is not emitted directly into the atmosphere, but is a secondary pollutant produced by reaction between nitrogen dioxide (NO2), hydrocarbons and sunlight. High levels of ozone can produce harmful effects on human health and the environment in general. Therefore, the study of extreme values of ozone represents an important topic of research in environmental problems. Classical extreme value theory has been usually used in air-pollution studies. It consists of fitting a parametric generalized extreme value (GEV) distribution to a data set of extreme values and using the estimated distribution to compute quantities like the probability of exceedance, the quantiles, the return levels or the mean return periods. In this paper, we propose nonparametric methods to estimate those quantities. Additionally, nonparametric estimators of the trends of very high values of ozone are proposed. The nonparametric estimators are applied to real samples of maximum ozone values obtained from several monitoring stations belonging to the Automatic Urban and Rural Network (AURN) from the UK. Results show that nonparametric estimators work satisfactorily, generally outperforming the behaviour of classical parametric estimators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The study of extreme values and prediction of ozone data is an important topic of research when dealing with environmental problems. Classical extreme value theory is usually used in air-pollution studies. It consists in fitting a parametric generalised extreme value (GEV) distribution to a data set of extreme values, and using the estimated distribution to compute return levels and other quantities of interest. Here, we propose to estimate these values using nonparametric functional data methods. Functional data analysis is a relatively new statistical methodology that generally deals with data consisting of curves or multi-dimensional variables. In this paper, we use this technique, jointly with nonparametric curve estimation, to provide alternatives to the usual parametric statistical tools. The nonparametric estimators are applied to real samples of maximum ozone values obtained from several monitoring stations belonging to the Automatic Urban and Rural Network (AURN) in the UK. The results show that nonparametric estimators work satisfactorily, outperforming the behaviour of classical parametric estimators. Functional data analysis is also used to predict stratospheric ozone concentrations. We show an application, using the data set of mean monthly ozone concentrations in Arosa, Switzerland, and the results are compared with those obtained by classical time series (ARIMA) analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The Ozone Source–Receptor Model (OSRM) is a Lagrangian trajectory model developed to describe photochemical ozone production in the UK. The OSRM builds on existing boundary layer trajectory models used previously for assisting the development of UK ozone policy, but has a number of notable differences. A novel feature of the OSRM is a surface conversion module to represent the vertical gradient in ozone arising from chemical loss and deposition to the surface. This has significantly improved the performance of the model, especially in urban areas. In this paper, the modelling system is described and its performance against measured ozone concentrations and metrics and other UK ozone models is discussed. The model has been used to calculate future ozone concentrations in the UK and thus to assess a number of possible control measures developed for the UK Air Quality Strategy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

CORINAIR atmospheric emission inventories are frequently used input data for air quality models with a domain situated in Europe. In CORINAIR emission inventories, sources are broken down over 11 major source categories. This paper presents spatial surrogates for the disaggregation of CORINAIR atmospheric emission inventories for input of air pollutants and particulate matter to grid or polygon based air quality model domains inside Europe. The basis for the disaggregation model was the CLC2000 land cover data to which statistical weights were added. Weights were population census data for residential emissions, employment statistics for agricultural and industrial area emissions, livestock statistics for ammonia emissions and annual aircraft movements for emissions realized by air transport. Additional road and off-road network information was used to disaggregate emissions realized by traffic. A comparison of top down produced emission estimates with spatially resolved national emission data for The Netherlands and the United Kingdom gave confidence in the present spatial surrogates as a tool for the top down production of atmospheric emission maps. Explained variance at a spatial resolution of 5km was >70% for CO, NMVOC and NO x , >60% for PM10 and almost 50% for SO2. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• We describe the UK Integrated Assessment Model applied to PM 2.5 policy applications. • We quantify exceedance of the WHO guideline in 2016. • We quantify source contributions to PM 2.5 concentrations in the UK. • We define metrics, PWMC and PWME, which focus policy on the most exposed populations. • We discuss uncertainties related to PM 2.5 modelling. Source apportionment and the effect of reducing individual sources is important input for the development of strategies to address air pollution. The UK Integrated Assessment Model, UKIAM, has been developed for this purpose as a flexible framework, combining information from different atmospheric dispersion models to cover different pollutant contributions, and span the range from European to local scale. In this paper we describe the UKIAM as developed for SO 2 , NOx, NH 3 , PM 2.5 and VOCs. We illustrate its versatility and application with assessment of current PM 2.5 concentrations and exposure of the UK population, as a case-study that has been used as the starting point to investigate potential improvement towards attainment of the WHO guideline of 10 µg/m3. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transport sector is consistently responsible for around 30 per cent of carbon dioxide emissions in developed countries and is one of few sectors where emissions continue to increase as a result of apparently insatiable demand for road and air travel. This paper examines how the formulation of transport policy fits into the exposition of UK climate policy, focusing on three principal areas of tension: policy priority (congestion and carbon reduction); strategies to reduce emissions (technological and behavioural solutions) and timescale (short- and long-term vision). We suggest that in overcoming such tensions government ministers will need to devolve significant policy formulation and implementation powers to an appropriate scale of governance – in this case the city-region – to fashion a ‘convergence space’ capable of promoting meaningful action with regard to transport's climate impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Transport is a major user of carbon-based fuels, and achievement of the targets set at the Kyoto Protocol and elsewhere means that the EU and national governments must reduce CO2 emissions in all sectors, including transport. This paper reports on a recently completed study for the UK government on the options available to meet a 60% CO2 reduction target by 2030 in the UK transport sector. The study follows a backcasting study approach, developing a business as usual baseline for transport emissions, and two alternative scenarios to 2030. Different policy measures are assessed and assembled into mutually supporting policy packages (PP). Although 2030 seems a long way ahead, action must be taken now if the targets for CO2 reduction are to be met. The achievement of a carbon-efficient transport future, combined with holding travel levels at present levels, is likely to be very difficult. A major transformation in the way transport and urban planning is carried out is required. As transport and urban planners, we need to think very differently in tackling the new environmental and liveability imperative. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Carbon dioxide emissions from the UK transport sector are a growing problem. More fundamental changes are required to address the long-term environmental and social impacts of this problem. This paper presents a variety of ways in which electrical systems, particularly at the lower voltage distribution level, may be called upon to support more sustainable transport. It will no longer be reasonable to consider the electricity and transport sectors as separate. The three paths to lower-carbon transportation described reinforce the importance of intelligently designed and secure electricity system from a mix of low-carbon sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper describes a research study, which explores alternative future scenarios for Great Britain in the year 2030 and the implications these have for travel demand and transport provision. Five alternative future scenarios are represented in the GB national transport model and forecasts are obtained for trip making, traffic levels, congestion and emissions in 2030. For all scenarios it is expected that there will be significant traffic growth. Traffic growth is restricted most in scenarios including distance-based road charging on motorways and trunk roads. However, congestion and carbon dioxide emissions are most effectively limited in scenarios with congestion-based road charging, major improvements to urban public transport and investment in new fuel technologies and in improving engine efficiency. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Almost a third of local authorities across Great Britain have declared air quality management areas (AQMAs), which are the focus of concerted actions to reduce unacceptably high concentrations of prescribed air pollutants by a date specified in regulations. Local government has been provided with guidance from central governments on the use of modelling and monitoring tools, as part of a local air quality review and assessment process. Use of the various tools and the interpretation of the findings have not been consistent across Great Britain. As a result, AQMAs are neither uniform in shape nor in the decision-making processes leading to their declaration. Local authorities have collaborated in many parts of the country, using working groups to share experiences and resources. This paper examines groupings from three regions of Great Britain; London, the West Midlands and the former-Avon area of Southwest England. An examination of the methods and tools used collaboratively has illustrated variation in local air quality management decision-making and AQMA designation. This has implications for delivering the necessary improvements to achieve the UK''s national air quality objectives. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Surface minerals extraction and processing operations can generate large quantities of fugitive dust that, when released in an uncontrolled manner, can cause widespread nuisance and potential health concerns for on-site personnel and surrounding communities. Typical fugitive dust emission sources may include minerals transfer points, conveyance, loading into crusher feed bins, haulage and blasting. To increase the understanding of the dispersion of fugitive dust from such activities it is necessary to develop suitable modelling strategies. The paper reports the results of a series of preliminary studies conducted using the UK Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling Software (ADMS3.1). A strategy was developed to model dust dispersion from blasting events and haul roads within a major UK limestone quarry. An analysis of the results confirmed the strong influence on the predicted dust dispersion of site-specific meteorological conditions and both the in-pit and surrounding terrain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) could achieve drastic cuts in the CO2 emissions associated with fossil fuels in the near to medium term and has been promoted as a significant climate change mitigation option. As the profile of this family of technologies grows rapidly, there remain many uncertainties relating to its viability, effectiveness and desirability. In this paper we begin to map out some of the key issues associated with CCS, using a multi-criteria approach to explore how an (admittedly small) selection of stakeholders perceive alternative storage options and energy scenarios. We present five long-term scenarios describing alternative ways in which the UK energy system could develop and which deploy different levels of carbon storage. The key storage options considered are oil and gas fields (both disused and with enhanced oil recovery), traps in saline aquifers, saline aquifers outside traps and on-shore sites. The relative performance of the scenarios and the storage reservoirs included within them have been assessed against a set of socio-economic, technical and environmental criteria by a small selection of stakeholders to the carbon storage debate. Whilst we cannot make strong conclusions regarding precise stakeholder opinions at this stage due to the small size of the sample, the broad delineation of the arguments for and against CCS are evident. Multi-criteria assessment (MCA) appears to hold much potential as a useful tool for characterising and better understanding differences in stakeholder assessments of CCS and its implications, and for identifying options around which greater consensus on the desirability (or otherwise) of CCS as a mitigation strategy might emerge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a summary of research conducted on the short-term health benefits arising from the introduction of vehicle exhaust catalysts (VECs) to petrol-fuelled cars in the UK. We carried out an evaluation of the environmental and health benefits from a reduction in emissions through this mandated technology against its costs, for urban areas of Great Britain. We made an ex post assessment – based on available data to 1998 – and an ex ante assessment – projected to 2005, when full penetration of VECs into the car fleet is anticipated. The results indicate substantial health benefits from VECs that are likely to exceed their costs significantly: by 1998, when no more than half the car fleet had catalysts installed, the net societal health benefits were around £500 million, while by 2005, the benefits could reach £2 billion. We also found through environmental surveys, that although lead concentrations in road dusts have fallen by 50% in urban areas, platinum accumulations near roads have risen up to 90-fold higher than natural background levels. This suggests that although as yet there is no evidence of adverse health effects from platinum, further monitoring may be warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The paper reports on the development of UK transport targets for CO2 emissions for 2050. Five key studies containing future carbon emissions scenarios for the UK were used to establish targets for overall reductions in emissions to achieve stabilisation at 550 and 450ppm of atmospheric CO2. Two approaches were used to consider the proportion of total emissions that would be attributable to transport in the future: 26% of total emissions as now and an increase to 41% of total emissions in line with forecasts. The overall targets and expected contributions from transport were used to derive target emissions for the transport sector to be achieved by 2050, which ranged from 8.2 to 25.8MtC. Even the weakest of these targets represents a considerable reduction from current emissions levels. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Comments on the White Paper issued by Great Britain's government in reply to the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution's report 'Energy--the changing climate.' Scientific rationale for the proposed 60 percent reduction in carbon dioxide emissions; Allocation of emission rights to nations on a per capita basis; Urgency of challenge; Government action through research; Scenarios for 2050.

This paper considers the evolution of the local transport planning process and examines a sample of nine county-scale areas with regard to the integration of air quality issues within the transport planning process over the last 3 years. It concludes that transport planning in the UK has made some headway towards the integration of environmental considerations into the planning process, including air quality considerations. There is, however, notable diversity between highways authorities in the degree to which air quality is considered. Air quality management operates to a significantly shorter time-scale than transport planning. The differing time-scales of the two planning processes have hindered their integration as a consequence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on the threats posed by poor housing conditions on public health in Great Britain. Effects of temperature and humidity of houses on health; Sources of indoor air contaminants; Data on the occurrence of accidents in British homes. INSET: Green paper focus on housing conditions and homelessness.

Focuses on the annual report on the implementation of the Energy White Paper, which shows the government's own analysis that predicts the goal to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in Great Britain. Assessment of the consequences of growing dependence on imported oil and gas; Implications of the mitigation for the effects of climate change; Factors that lead to increased competition for reserves.

The article recaps facts about nature and science that were discovered previously. In June 1,1958, the Clean Air Act of 1956 was implemented. Clean Air Act bans dark smoke from any chimney in England and Wales. The ban is applicable to all buildings, railway engines and ships, however it directly affects industrial and commercial premises. 100 years ago a notable paper was read by professor W. Phillips related to children's capacity for attention. After referring to various experimental inquiries, he came up with an assumption that a child's attention declines more quickly in the afternoon and that math is the subject that demands more attention than any other subjects.