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The primary objective of this study is to assess the health risks associated with lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) contamination in dairy products consumed in Iran. To conduct the research, 132 samples of cow milk, yogurt, cream, and doogh (a traditional Iranian beverage) were collected from both traditional and industrial livestock farms in Zanjan, Iran. The samples were microwave-digested, and an atomic absorption spectrophotometer equipped with a graphite furnace was used to determine toxic metals contents. The findings of the study revealed that the average concentrations of Pb in milk and dairy product exceeded the permitted limits. The mean ± se levels of Pb and Cd in milk, yogurt, doogh, and cream were 92.64 ± 8.73, 52.19 ± 8.42, 78.80 ± 12.89, 106.07 ± 8.94 μg/kg and 2.34 ± 0.22, 1.21 ± 0.20, 2.59 ± 0.57, 5.61 ± 0.63 μg/kg, respectively. For the purpose of exposure assessment, the chronic daily intake (CDI) was utilized, while the Hazard Quotient (HQ) and Total Hazard Quotient (THQ) were employed for non-carcinogenic risk assessment. Additionally, the Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR) was utilized for carcinogenic risk assessment. The results revealed that the highest exposure to Pb and Cd in the P 95th of CDI were observed in milk, followed by yogurt, doogh, and cream. According to our finding, the HQ and THQ values for potentially toxic elements (PTEs) related to the consumption of dairy products in the P 95th of cumulative probability were below 1. The results indicate that the ILCR of Cd (P 95th) due to the consumption of dairy products falls within the acceptable risk range (10−4 to 10−6). While our findings indicate levels of Cd in dairy products, it is important to note that there are currently no established standards for permissible Cd concentrations in Iran. Therefore, further research and regulatory frameworks are needed to ensure public safety.

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are a growing public health concern worldwide. Consumption of foodstuffs is currently thought to be one of the principal exposure routes to EDCs. However, alternative ways of human exposure are through inhalation of chemicals and dermal contact. These compounds in food products such as canned food, bottled water, dairy products, fish, meat, egg, and vegetables are a ubiquitous concern to the general population. Therefore, understanding EDCs' properties, such as origin, exposure, toxicological impact, and legal aspects are vital to control their release to the environment and food. The present paper provides an overview of the EDCs and their possible disrupting impact on the endocrine system and other organs.

Risk assessment of heavy metals is critical in controlling and preventing risks of foodborne diseases. Fish can be used as bioindicators for exposure to potential toxic elements (PTEs), which can represent potential risks for humans. The long Iranian coastline and three major fishery regions in the country, including the northern (Caspian Sea) and southern (Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman) seas as well as inland waters and aquacultures (rivers, dams, wetlands and fish farms) have made Iran a large producer of fish. In the first step of the present study, data collection and report of PTEs in fish from the three fishery regions (2010–2022) were carried out. In the second step, health risks were assessed using Monte Carlo simulation in child and adult consumers. The average concentrations of Cd, Hg and Pb for the northern sea, southern sea, and inland waters and aquacultures were 0.273, 0.249, 1.077; 0.430, 0.423, 1.182; and 1.387, 0.232, 1.703 μg/g per dry weight, respectively. Based on the target hazard quotient results, Hg intake of Iranian children from all the three fishery regions was more than 1, which was alarming. In the adult age group, southern sea fish consumers were at risk of Hg adverse health effects. Moreover, Cd included the highest carcinogenic risk of toxic elements in fish from the three fishery regions of Iran. Estimation of THQ, HI, ILCR and EDI revealed that consumption of fish might induce health complexities for the consumers in Iran. Moreover, Iranians from northern and southern regions of the country consumed further seafood due to the availability of high seafood sources in these regions. Hence, various indices must be used for the risk assessment of general human health. Due to the high risks of carcinogenicity/non-carcinogenicity estimated in the risk assessment, consumption of fish by infants and pregnant women must critically be assessed.

The aim of This study was to assess the concentration of potential toxic elements (PTEs) in wheat, flour of Sangak, and Lavash bread samples and the possible effect of the milling process due to a depreciation of the device. Levels of PTEs in tested samples (n = 270) from 10 factories in Iran were determined by ICP-OES (inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry). In addition, the associated human health risk due to consumption of wheat, Sangak and Lavash bread flours in adults and children was estimated. In this approach, percentile 95% hazard quotient (HQ), Hazard index (HI), and Total Hazard Index (THI) was used as a symptom for endangering the consumer people health. A significant difference was detected in Ni concentration between wheat and two brands of flours i.e., Sangak and Lavash samples. The PTEs concentration order in the wheat and flour samples was Fe > Zn > Cu > Ni > Cr > Pb > As > Cd, respectively. Consistent with findings, the concentration of PTEs in all samples was less than the permitted limit set by the European Commission and JECFA committee. The non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic human health risk assessment (HRA) was calculated. Bread consumption per capita is 0.45 kg for adults and 0.27 kg for children per day. The results showed that both adults and children groups are not at remarkable health risk for PTEs at mean HQ, HI, THI 1 and ELCR >10E-4).

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination poses a fatal risk to human beings and urgently needs highly sensitive detection for environmental monitoring and food safety. However, the existing challenges are the unsatisfied sensitivity of the immunoassay methods and the complex matrix effect. Rolling circle amplification (RCA) is a promising method for nucleic acid isothermal amplification due to its high specificity and sensitivity. Herein, we constructed a general RCA-based point-of-care test method (RCA−POCT). With biotinylated antibodies, streptavidin, and biotinylated RCA primers, we realized the signal transduction and preliminary signal amplification. In this way, the fluorescent signal of the immunocomplex on the microwells was greatly enhanced. Under optimal conditions, we recorded sensitive detection limits for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) of 1.94, 16.3, and 37.7 fg/mL (femtogram per microliter), and wide linear ranges with 5 × 10−6 to 5, 5 × 10−5 to 5, and 5 × 10−5 to 5 ng/mL in the irrigation water, field soil, and peanut samples, respectively. Satisfactory recovery, specificity, repeatability, and reproducibility were observed. The RCA−POCT was validated by comparing it to the HPLC method. This work provides a general RCA-assisted detection method for AFB1 in the environment and food.