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Rain-fed cultivation in drylands--especially in arid and hyper-arid areas--is often considered to play a minor role in human subsistence. Drawing upon the results of ethnoarchaeological research in North Africa, this paper reviews non-irrigated agricultural practices in the absence of anthropogenic water-harvesting structures, and presents a proposal for how such practices can be identified in the drylands of the past. An improved understanding of the long-term development of rain fed cultivation augments our knowledge of past land-use strategies and can inform future models of sustainable agriculture in some of the world's driest regions. Keywords: Sahara, Al Khiday, rain-fed cultivation, drylands, resilience, phytoliths, Introduction Today, drylands cover approximately 40 per cent of the world's land area and host around 40 per cent of the world's population. The United Nations Environment Programme defines drylands [...]

Between 2003-2011, a research programme in southwest Fazzan (Libya) aimed at understanding the resilience of the Kel Tadrart Tuareg, currently inhabiting the Acacus Mts. Using a multi-pronged approach featuring oral interviews, participant observation, mapping of settlements and localisation of natural resources, the Kel Tadrarts' interaction with the landscape was investigated, and traditional (local) ecological knowledge turned out to be a key factor in the successful adaptation of the Kel Tadrart to erratic rainfall and meagre pastures. The study of Kel Tadrart resilience has fostered new interpretation of the recent past of the region, developed under the framework of the Theory of Resilience. KEYWORDS: Kel Tadrart Tuareg, Tadrart Acacus, pastoralism, arid lands, resilience, Introduction The Sahara hosts a variety of human communities that have been successfully shaping their lifestyles to extreme environmental conditions since the onset of present day aridity (c. 3,000 years [...]

It is likely that no other socio-economic system has been the subject of so many attempts of classification as pastoralism. Since the first systematic encounters with nomadic societies in Africa [...]

The earliest evidence of agriculture in the Horn of Africa dates to the Pre- Aksumite period (ca. 1600 BCE). Domesticated C3 cereals are considered to have been introduced from the Near East, whereas the origin (local or not) and time of domestication of various African C4 species such as sorghum, finger millet, or t'ef remain unknown. In this paper, we present the results of the analysis of microbotanical residues (starch and phytoliths) from grinding stones recovered from two archaeological sites in northeastern Tigrai (Ethiopia), namely Mezber and Ona Adi. Together, both sites cover a time period that encompasses the earliest evidence of agriculture in the region (ca. 1600 BCE) to the fall of the Kingdom of Aksum (ca. 700 CE). Our data indicate that these communities featured complex mixed economies which included the consumption of both domestic and wild plant products since the Initial Pre- Aksumite Phase (ca. 1600 to 900 BCE), including C3 crops and legumes, but also C4 cereals and geophytes. These new data expand the record of C4 plant use in the Horn of Africa to over 1,000 y. It also represents the first evidence for the consumption of starchy products in the region. These results have parallels in the wider northeastern African region where complex food systems have been documented. Altogether, our data represent a significant challenge to our current knowledge of Pre- Aksumite and Aksumite economies, forcing us to rethink the way we define these cultural horizons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum are amongst the most important drought-tolerant crops worldwide. They constitute primary staple crops in drylands, where their production is known to date back over 5000 years ago. Compared to other crops, millets and sorghum have received less attention until very recently, and their production has been progressively reduced in the last 50 years. Here, we present new models that focus on the ecological factors driving finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum traditional cultivation, with a global perspective. The interaction between environment and traditional agrosystems was investigated by Redundancy Analysis of published literature and tested against novel ethnographic data. Contrary to earlier beliefs, our models show that the total annual precipitation is not the most determinant factor in shaping millet and sorghum agriculture. Instead, our results point to the importance of other variables such as the duration of the plant growing cycle, soil water-holding capacity or soil nutrient availability. This highlights the potential of finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum traditional cultivation practices as a response to recent increase of aridity levels worldwide. Ultimately, these practices can play a pivotal role for resilience and sustainability of dryland agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cross-cultural models are a useful tool to generate hypotheses about the past using ethnographic data, especially when they can be validated against the archaeological record. In this paper, we propose the use of computer modelling techniques to gain insights into the agricultural history in the northern Horn of Africa of two key staple crops, i.e. finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor). To date, our understanding of the role of these cereals in the past economies of the region has been hindered by preservation issues and the limited number of systematic archaeobotanical research programs. By building predictive models that combine published ethnographic literature and environmental datasets on a global level, we can generate hypotheses about past agricultural systems in the northern Horn. The ability of the models to predict local agricultural practices in the area was tested against ethnoarchaeological observations in Gulo Makeda (Tigrai, Ethiopia). Archaeobotanical data from an archaeological site in the area, i.e. Ona Adi (ca. 750 BCE - CE 700), was used to assess the model's predictions when applied to the archaeological record. According to our results, the rainfed agriculture of finger millet and sorghum was already in place during the Aksumite period (ca. 50 BCE - CE 800) around the main centres of settlement articulation. These results are supported by the phytolith assemblage from Ona Adi, which records the presence of water-stressed Chloridoideae and Panicoideae grasses throughout the occupation of the site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Author(s): Julie Dunne [1]; Richard P. Evershed (corresponding author) [1]; Melanie Salque [1]; Lucy Cramp [1]; Silvia Bruni [2]; Kathleen Ryan [3]; Stefano Biagetti [4]; Savino di Lernia [4, 5] [...]

In this paper, we present a pilot study aimed at investigating the impact of subsistence strategies and environmental pressure on the distribution of ethnographically documented strategies to cope with drought and its effects across 35 current societies in Africa. We use freely accessible ethnographic databases to retrieve data on how a number of African societies deal with the circumstances of drought, and ascertain the impact of geography on their distribution in order to measure possible relationships between them, a set of subsistence choices, and proxies of environmental constraints. We use Canonical Correspondence Analysis to explore the emerging patterns and find that subsistence strategy strongly impacts the choice of drought management strategies, especially if considered with a proxy of local environmental condition. Spatial proximity and aridity per se have only marginal impact, highlighting other relevant processes of cultural transmission that at least partly transcend (a) the intensity of human interaction over geographic gradients and (b) local adaptation primarily dependent on water availability. This study supports the wide applicability of quantitative and replicable methods to cross-cultural evidence on a variety of adaptive strategies and uses ethnographic data to propose new hypotheses that can inform future archaeological research by showing recurrent and non-case-specific choices highlighting resilient practices and adaptive behaviour in Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous and extensive 'Stone Walled Sites' have been identified in southern African Iron Age landscapes. Appearing from around 1200 CE, and showing considerable variability in size and form, these settlements are named after the dry-stone wall structures that characterize them. Stone Walled Sites were occupied by various Bantu-speaking agropastoral communities. In this paper we test the use of pXRF (portable X-ray fluorescence analysis) to generate a 'supplementary' archaeological record where evident stratigraphy is lacking, survey conditions may be uneven, and excavations limited, due to the overall site size. We propose herein the application of portable X-ray fluorescence analysis (pXRF) coupled with multivariate exploratory analysis and geostatistical modelling at Seoke, a southern African SWS of historical age (18th century CE). The aim of the paper is twofold: to explore the potential of the application of a low cost, quick, and minimally invasive technique to detect chemical markers in anthropogenic sediments from a Stone Walled Site, and to propose a way to analyse the results in order to improve our understanding of the use of space at non-generalized scales in such sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the 12,000 years preceding the Industrial Revolution, human activities led to significant changes in land cover, plant and animal distributions, surface hydrology, and biochemical cycles. Earth system models suggest that this anthropogenic land cover change influenced regional and global climate. However, the representation of past land use in earth system models is currently oversimplified. As a result, there are large uncertainties in the current understanding of the past and current state of the earth system. In order to improve representation of the variety and scale of impacts that past land use had on the earth system, a global effort is underway to aggregate and synthesize archaeological and historical evidence of land use systems. Here we present a simple, hierarchical classification of land use systems designed to be used with archaeological and historical data at a global scale and a schema of codes that identify land use practices common to a range of systems, both implemented in a geospatial database. The classification scheme and database resulted from an extensive process of consultation with researchers worldwide. Our scheme is designed to deliver consistent, empirically robust data for the improvement of land use models, while simultaneously allowing for a comparative, detailed mapping of land use relevant to the needs of historical scholars. To illustrate the benefits of the classification scheme and methods for mapping historical land use, we apply it to Mesopotamia and Arabia at 6 kya (c. 4000 BCE). The scheme will be used to describe land use by the Past Global Changes (PAGES) LandCover6k working group, an international project comprised of archaeologists, historians, geographers, paleoecologists, and modelers. Beyond this, the scheme has a wide utility for creating a common language between research and policy communities, linking archaeologists with climate modelers, biodiversity conservation workers and initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A pilot archaeological survey has revealed evidence for forty monumental stone cairns preserved in good conditions in the Mudug region, Puntland, in the Horn of Africa. These monuments were digitally recorded and are presented here as part of a first assessment of the archaeological potential of the region. While such monuments are not uncommon in eastern Africa, this particular discovery starts to shed light on an area that has not previously been explored archaeologically. Our paper reveals the rich potential of the Mudug region and paves the way for further research and development action in a key geopolitical area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present preliminary results of an Earth observation approach for the study of past human occupation and landscape reconstruction in the Central Sahara. This region includes a variety of geomorphological features such as palaeo-oases, dried river beds, alluvial fans and upland plateaux whose geomorphological characteristics, in combination with climate changes, have influenced patterns of human dispersal and sociocultural activities during the late Holocene. In this paper, we discuss the use of medium- and high-resolution remotely sensed data for the mapping of anthropogenic features and paleo- and contemporary hydrology and vegetation. In the absence of field inspection in this inaccessible region, we use different remote sensing methods to first identify and classify archaeological features, and then explore the geomorphological factors that might have influenced their spatial distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mobility is a key theme in Saharan archaeology. From early human dispersal to the spread of the ‘Neolithic’ up to trade in the historical period, the Saharan regions have been crossed throughout the ages by people, artefacts and ideas on a uniquely large scale. In this area, archaeological research has evolved over time, but climatic and environmental variability has played a major role in the interpretation of past Saharan mobility. This article offers a review of papers on the mobility issue in African archaeology, comparing data from the Sahara and the rest of Africa from 1960 to the present. The main aim is to analyse the development of research on mobility in the Sahara, highlighting its main characteristics and peculiarities and suggesting the adoption of more nuanced approaches to the study of past mobility that may pave the way for ‘alternative’— or simply more refined — reconstructions of cultural trajectories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mountain ranges of the Tadrart Acacus and Messak in southwestern Libya (central Sahara) are widely known for their outstanding rock art inventory and some key prehistoric sites. This paper illustrates the preliminary outcomes of current investigations on the ‘Tifinagh’ inscriptions of the Tadrart Acacus the recording of which has recently increased thanks to the support of ‘Endangered Archives Programme’ of the British Library. Its aim is twofold: first, to outline the main steps of the project, placing these within the most relevant issues related to the phenomenon of writing in the Sahara, and second, to describe the results that have been achieved to date and to foresee possible avenues of development. In fact, although difficulties in both dating and decipherment have been repeatedly stressed through the years, we emphasise that Tifinagh texts can play an important role in the process of landscape interpretation. A proper ‘written landscape’, where humans left readable signs of their passages or their stays, can integrate other archaeological approaches pursued so far in the Tadrart Acacus and its surroundings. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The earliest evidence of agriculture in the Horn of Africa dates to the Pre-Aksumite period (ca. 1600 BCE). Domesticated C 3 cereals are considered to have been introduced from the Near East, whereas the origin (local or not) and time of domestication of various African C 4 species such as sorghum, finger millet, or t'ef remain unknown. In this paper, we present the results of the analysis of microbotanical residues (starch and phytoliths) from grinding stones recovered from two archaeological sites in northeastern Tigrai (Ethiopia), namely Mezber and Ona Adi. Together, both sites cover a time period that encompasses the earliest evidence of agriculture in the region (ca. 1600 BCE) to the fall of the Kingdom of Aksum (ca. 700 CE). Our data indicate that these communities featured complex mixed economies which included the consumption of both domestic and wild plant products since the Initial Pre-Aksumite Phase (ca. 1600 to 900 BCE), including C 3 crops and legumes, but also C 4 cereals and geophytes. These new data expand the record of C 4 plant use in the Horn of Africa to over 1,000 y. It also represents the first evidence for the consumption of starchy products in the region. These results have parallels in the wider northeastern African region where complex food systems have been documented. Altogether, our data represent a significant challenge to our current knowledge of Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite economies, forcing us to rethink the way we define these cultural horizons.