Search

A crewed mission to and from Mars may include an exciting array of enabling biotechnologies that leverage inherent mass, power, and volume advantages over traditional abiotic approaches. In this perspective, we articulate the scientific and engineering goals and constraints, along with example systems, that guide the design of a surface biomanufactory. Extending past arguments for exploiting stand-alone elements of biology, we argue for an integrated biomanufacturing plant replete with modules for microbial in situ resource utilization, production, and recycling of food, pharmaceuticals, and biomaterials required for sustaining future intrepid astronauts. We also discuss aspirational technology trends in each of these target areas in the context of human and robotic exploration missions.

Here we review the 400-year history of hydroponic culture and describe a unique management approach that does not require leaching or discarding solution between harvests. Nutrients are maintained at a low and steady concentration by daily additions of a dilute solution that replaces the transpired water along with the nutrients that were removed in growth each day. A stable pH and a low steady-state concentration of ammonium are maintained through automated additions of a solution of nitric acid and ammonium nitrate. Ample solution volume (at least 20 cm deep) stabilizes nutrient concentrations, reduces root density, and improves uniformity. Gentle aeration at ≈100 mL·min-1·L-1 maintains dissolved oxygen near saturation and increases uniformity throughout the rhizosphere. These practices facilitate a uniform, closed, root zone with rigorous pH control that provides the micromolar nutrient concentrations of N and P that are representative of field soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Temporal separation of red (R) and blue (B) (alternating R/B) photons has been reported to increase leaf area, photon capture, and yield of lettuce compared with delivering both colors together (concurrent R+B). We grew three diverse lettuce cultivars (Grand Rapids, Rex, and Red Sails) under concurrent R+B photons (9/1 ratio) and alternating R/B photons (9/1 ratio) under an equal daily light integral (DLI) of either 8.6 or 23 mol.m-2.d-1. Contrary to five previous studies, we found no increase in either leaf area or fresh mass and dry mass in any of the alternating R/B photon treatments compared with concurrent R+B photons. In fact, at a DLI at 8.6 mol.m-2.d-1, alternating R/B photons decreased the dry mass of 'Grand Rapids' and 'Rex' lettuce by 38% and 17%, respectively. Two previous studies reported that photosynthetic rates increased with alternating R/B photons; however, we found that the net assimilation rate was generally decreased by alternating R/B photons. An analysis of images obtained from automated digital photography revealed that the relative expansion rate of leaves was 61% higher during intervals of pure B rather than intervals of pure R photons at the same photosynthetic photon flux density; however, this did not result in a higher leaf area compared with concurrent R+B photons. Overall, our studies do not indicate that alternating R/B photons increase lettuce leaf area or yield compared with concurrent R+B photons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rhizosphere pH determines nutrient bioavailability, but this pH is difficult to measure. Standard pH tests require adding water to growth media. This dilutes hydrogen ion activity and increases pH. We used a novel, in situ, pointed-tip electrode to estimate rhizosphere pH without dilution. Measurements from this electrode matched a research-grade pH meter in hydroponic nutrient solutions. We then compared measurements from this electrode to saturated paste and pour-through methods in peat moss, coconut coir, and pine bark. The pointedtip electrode was unable to accurately measure pH in the highly-porous pine bark media. Adding deionized water to the other media at container capacity using the saturated paste method resulted in a pH that was 0.59 ± 0.30 units higher than the initial in situ measurement at the top of the container. This increase aligns with established solution chemistry principles. Measurements of pH using the pour-through method were 0.38 ± 0.24 pH units higher than in situ measurements at the bottom of the container. We conclude that in situ pH measurements are not subject to dilution and are thus more representative of the rhizosphere pH than the saturated paste and pour-through techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Silicon (Si) in plant tissues reduces abiotic and biotic stress, but it is incorporated as silica (SiO2), which is difficult to solubilize for analysis. We modified an oven-induced tissue-digestion and analysis method to improve Si solubilization and validated its accuracy by quantifying the mass-balance recovery of Si from the hydroponic solution and plant tissues of cucumber (Cucumis sativus). Leaf, stem, and root tissues were dried, finely-ground, and digested in 12.5 molar sodium hydroxide at 95°C for 4 hours. Solutions were then acidified with 6 molar hydrochloric acid to achieve a pH below 2 for measurement of Si using the molybdate blue colorimetric method. Interference of phosphorus in the analysis was minimized by increasing the addition of oxalic acid from 0.6 to 1.1 molar. We recovered 101% ± 13% of the expected Si, calculated using mass-balance recovery, in leaf, stem, and root tissues across 15 digestions. This Si recovery was fourteen-fold higher than the standard acid-extraction method and similar to a USDA-ARS alkaline-extraction method. Our procedure offers a low-cost, accurate method for extraction and analysis of Si in plant tissues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ultraviolet photons (UV) can damage critical biochemical processes. Plants synthesize photo-protective pigments that absorb UV to minimize damage. Cannabinoids absorb UV, so increased UV has the potential to increase cannabinoid synthesis. Studies in the 1980's provided some evidence for this hypothesis in low-cannabinoid cultivars, but recent studies did not find an increase in cannabinoid synthesis with increasing UV in high-cannabinoid cultivars. These studies used low UV photon fluxes, so we examined the effect of higher UV photon fluxes. We used fluorescent UV lights with 55% UV-B (280 to 314 nm) and 45% UV-A (315 to 399 nm). Treatments began three weeks after the start of short days and continued for five weeks until harvest. Established weighting factors were used to calculate the daily biologically effective UV photon flux (UV-PFDBE; 280 to 399 nm). Daily UV-PFDBE levels were 0, 0.02, 0.05, and 0.11 mol m-2 d-1 with a background daily light integral (DLI) of 30 mol m-2 d-1. This provided a ratio of daily UV-PFDBE to DLI of 41 to 218% of summer sunlight in the field. Cannabinoid concentration was 3 to 13% higher than the control in UV treated plants, but the effect was not statistically significant. Fv/Fm and flower yield were reduced only in the highest UV treatment. These data support recent literature and lead us to conclude that an elevated flux of UV photons is not an effective approach to increase cannabinoid concentration in high-cannabinoid cultivars. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plants compete for sunlight and have evolved to perceive shade through both relative increases in the flux of far-red photons (FR; 700 to 750 nm) and decreases in the flux of all photons (intensity). These two signals interact to control stem elongation and leaf expansion. Although the interacting effects on stem elongation are well quantified, responses for leaf expansion are poorly characterized. Here we report a significant interaction between far-red fraction and total photon flux. Extended photosynthetic photon flux density (ePPFD; 400 to 750 nm) was maintained at three levels (50/100, 200 and 500 µmol m-2 s-1), each with a range of 2 to 33% FR. Increasing FR increased leaf expansion in three cultivars of lettuce at the highest ePPFD but decreased expansion at the lowest ePPFD. This interaction was attributed to differences in biomass partitioning between leaves and stems. Increased FR favored stem elongation and biomass partitioning to stems at low ePPFD and favored leaf expansion at high ePPFD. In cucumber, leaf expansion was increased with increasing percent FR under all ePPFD levels showing minimal interaction. The interactions (and lack thereof) have important implications for horticulture and warrant further study for plant ecology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plants compete for light partly by over-producing chlorophyll in leaves. The resulting high light absorption is an effective strategy for out competing neighbors in mixed communities, but it prevents light transmission to lower leaves and limits photosynthesis in dense agricultural canopies. We used a CRISPR/Cas9-mediated approach to engineer rice plants with truncated lightharvesting antenna (TLA) via knockout mutations to individual antenna assembly component genes CpSRP43, CpSRP54a, and its paralog, CpSRP54b. We compared the photosynthetic contributions of these components in rice by studying the growth rates of whole plants, quantum yield of photosynthesis, chlorophyll density and distribution, and phenotypic abnormalities. Additionally, we investigated a Poales-specific duplication of CpSRP54. The Poales are an important family that includes staple crops such as rice, wheat, corn, millet, and sorghum. Mutations in any of these three genes involved in antenna assembly decreased chlorophyll content and light absorption and increased photosynthesis per photon absorbed (quantum yield). These results have significant implications for the improvement of high leaf-area-index crop monocultures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phosphorus (P) is an essential but often over-applied nutrient in agricultural systems. Because of its detrimental environmental effects, P fertilization is well studied in crop production. Controlled environment agriculture allows for precise control of root-zone P and has the potential to improve sustainability over field agriculture. Medical Cannabis is uniquely cultivated for the unfertilized female inflorescence and mineral nutrition can affect the yield and chemical composition of these flowers. P typically accumulates in seeds, but its partitioning in unfertilized Cannabis flowers is not well studied. Here we report the effect of increasing P (25, 50, and 75 mg P per L) in continuous liquid fertilizer on flower yield, cannabinoid concentration, leachate P, nutrient partitioning, and phosphorus use efficiency (PUE) of a high-CBD Cannabis variety. There was no significant effect of P concentration on flower yield or cannabinoid concentration, but there were significant differences in leachate P, nutrient partitioning, and PUE. Leachate P increased 12-fold in response to the 3-fold increase in P input. The P concentration in the unfertilized flowers increased to more than 1%, but this did not increase yield or quality. The fraction of P in the flowers increased from 25 to 65% and PUE increased from 31 to 80% as the as the P input decreased from 75 to 25 mg per L. Avoiding excessive P fertilization can decrease the environmental impact of Cannabis cultivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The current definition of photosynthetically active radiation includes only photons from 400 up to 700 nm, despite evidence of the synergistic interaction between far‐red photons and shorter‐wavelength photons. The synergy between far‐red and shorter‐wavelength photons has not been studied in sunlight under natural conditions.We used a filter to remove photons above 700 nm to quantify the effects on photosynthesis in diverse species under full sun, medium light intensity and vegetation shade.Far‐red photons (701 to 750 nm) in sunlight are used efficiently for photosynthesis. This is especially important for leaves in vegetation shade, where far‐red photons can be > 50% of the total incident photons between 400 and 750 nm. Far‐red photons accounted for 24–25% of leaf gross photosynthesis (Pgross) in a C3 and a C4 species when sunlight was filtered through a leaf, and 10–14% of leaf Pgross in a tree and an understory species in deep shade.Accounting for the photosynthetic activity of far‐red photons is critical for accurate measurement and modeling of photosynthesis at single leaf, canopy and ecosystem scales. This, in turn, is crucial in understanding crop productivity, the global carbon cycle and climate change impacts on agriculture and ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Germination and seedling establishment for transplanting into hydroponics often uses porous substrates, but fine roots grow into these substrates, and they cannot be removed without damaging these roots. Seedlings transplanted without removal of substrates can cause interactions with solution chemistry or addition of particulates to the nutrient solution. Germination of seeds on slant boards is clean, uniform, and reduces the time to transplanting. Slant boards facilitate development of long roots, which maximize exposure of the primary root to the nutrient solution after transplanting. The "boards" are made from thin acrylic or polycarbonate sheets with germination paper on top. Seeds are held in place by covering with thin paper before vertical placement of the boards in the container. Four to twelve days later, the seedlings with long roots can be removed from the paper without damage and transplanted into the hydroponic system. Here we describe slant board construction and procedures for rapid germination and transplanting in hydroponics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mass balance principles are a cornerstone of efficient fertilizer use and can be utilized to optimize plant nutrition without discarding or leaching solution. Here, we describe the maintenance of closed hydroponic and soilless substrate systems based on mass balance. Water removed by transpiration is restored with solution that replaces the nutrients that were taken up with the water. The concentration of nutrients in this refill/irrigation solution is determined by multiplying the optimal concentration of each nutrient in plant tissue by the water-use efficiency (WUE; ratio of dry mass to water transpired). Optimal leaf nutrient concentrations are well established, but WUE in controlled environments varies widely and is less well characterized. Elevated CO2 increases photosynthesis and demand for nutrients, but partially closes stomata and reduces transpiration; so high CO2 dramatically increases WUE. The concentration of the refill/irrigation solution must be adjusted to account for a two-fold range of WUE, from 3 g L−1 in ambient CO2 in lower humidity, to 6 g L−1 in elevated CO2 in higher humidity. WUE and nutrient requirements vary during the vegetative and reproductive stages of growth, and adjustment of the solution over the lifecycle can be beneficial. Measurement of solution electrical conductivity (EC) is helpful, but if the solution is appropriate, low EC usually means healthy plants and active nutrient uptake. The ammonium to nitrate ratio is critical to pH management. We have applied these principles across multiple species and environments to achieve long-term, steady-state nutrient concentrations with no discharge or leaching of solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethylene ([C.sub.2][H.sub.4]) gas is produced throughout the life cycle of plants and can accumulate in closed growth chambers to levels 100 times higher than in outside environments. Elevated atmospheric [C.sub.2][H.sub.4] can cause a variety of abnormal responses, but the sensitivity to elevated [C.sub.2][H.sub.4] is not well characterized. We evaluated the [C.sub.2][H.sub.4] sensitivity of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and rice (Oryza sativa L.) in five studies. The first three studies compared the effects of continuous [C.sub.2][H.sub.4] levels ranging from 0 to 1000 nmol [mol.sup.-1] (ppb) in a growth chamber throughout the life cycle of the plants. A short-term 1000 nmol [mol.sup.-1] treatment was included in which exposure was stopped at anthesis. Yield was reduced by 36% in wheat and 63% in rice at 50 nmol [mol.sup.-1] and both species were virtually sterile when continuously exposed to 1000 nmol [mol.sup.-1]. However, the yield reductions were much less with exposure that stopped at anthesis, suggesting the detrimental effect of [C.sub.2][H.sub.4] on yield was greatest around the time of seed set. Two additional studies evaluated the differential sensitivity of two wheat cultivars (Super Dwarf and USU-Apogee) to 50 nmol [mol.sup.-1] [C.sub.2][H.sub.4] at three C[O.sub.2] levels [350, 1200, 5000 µmol [mol.sup.-1] (ppm)] in a greenhouse. Yield of USU-Apogee was not significantly reduced by [C.sub.2][H.sub.4] but the yield of Super Dwarf was reduced by 60%. Elevated C[O.sub.2] did not influence the sensitivity to [C.sub.2][H.sub.4]. A difference in the [C.sub.2][H.sub.4] sensitivity of USU-Apogee between greenhouse and growth chamber trials suggests that [C.sub.2][H.sub.4] sensitivity is dependent on the environment. Collectively, the data suggest that relatively low levels of [C.sub.2][H.sub.4] could induce anomalous plant responses by accumulation in greenhouses and growth chambers with inadequate ventilation. The data also suggest that [C.sub.2][H.sub.4] sensitivity can be reduced by both genetic and environmental manipulations., PLANTS CONTINUOUSLY SYNTHESIZE [C.sub.2][H.sub.4] throughout their life cycles and it mediates a broad range of physiological responses (Abeles et al., 1992). Several papers have described patterns of [C.sub.2][H.sub.4] synthesis and [...]

Dwarf plants are useful in research because multiple plants can be grown in a small area. Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is especially important since its relatively simple genome has recently been sequenced. We are characterizing a gibberellic acid (GA) mutant of rice (japonica cv. `Shiokari,' line N-71) that is extremely dwarf (20 cm tall). Unfortunately, this GA mutation is associated with poor germination (70%) under aerobic conditions. Neither exogenous GA nor a dormancy-breaking heat treatment improved germination. However, 95% germination was achieved by germinating the seeds anaerobically, either in a pure [N.sub.2] environment or submerged in unstirred tap water. The anaerobic conditions appear to break a mild post-harvest dormancy in this rice cultivar., DWARF LINES OF CROP PLANTS are useful in research because they can be grown in confined quarters such as a lab bench or in small growth chambers. The short stature [...]

Urea is a byproduct of the urea cycle in metabolism and is excreted through urine and sweat. Ammonia, which is toxic at low levels, is converted to the safe storage form of urea, which represents the largest efflux of nitrogen from many organisms. Urea is an important nitrogen source in agriculture, is added to many industrial products, and is a large component in wastewater. The enzyme urease hydrolyzes urea to ammonia and bicarbonate. This reaction is microbially mediated in soils, hydroponic solutions, and wastewater recycling and is catalyzed in vivo in plants using native urease, making measurement of urea environmentally important. Both direct and indirect methods to measure urea exist. This protocol uses diacetyl monoxime to directly determine the concentration of urea in solution. The protocol provides repeatable results and stable reagents with good color stability and simple measurement techniques for use in any lab with a spectrophotometer. The reaction between diacetyl monoxime and urea in the presence of sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, thiosemicarbazide, and ferric chloride produces a chromophore with a peak absorbance at 520 nm and a linear relationship between concentration and absorbance from 0.4 to 5.0 mM urea in this protocol. The lack of detectable interferences makes this protocol suitable for the determination of millimolar levels of urea in wastewater streams and hydroponic solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cherry orchards are transitioning to high-density plantings and dwarfing rootstocks to maximize production, but the response of these rootstocks to drought stress is poorly characterized. We used a 16-container, automated lysimeter system to apply repeated water stress to ungrafted Krymsk® 5 and 6 rootstocks during two growing cycles. Drought stress was imposed by withholding irrigation until the daily transpiration rate of each tree was 25% and 30% of the unstressed rate during the first trial and second trial, respectively. After this point was reached, the root-zone water status was restored to field capacity. Whole-tree transpiration measurements were supplemented with leaf-level gas-exchange measurements. Krymsk® 6 had a higher rate of photosynthesis, more vigorous vegetative growth and less conservative stomatal regulation during incipient drought than Krymsk® 5. At harvest, carbon partitioning to roots was greater in Krymsk® 6 than Krymsk® 5. The conservative rate of water use in Krymsk® 5 could be a function of greater stomatal control or reduced carbon partitioning to roots, which thereby limited transpiration rates. Further studies are needed to confirm that these results are applicable to trees grown using a common grafted scion under field conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The activity of the denitrifier enzyme in wheat rhizoplanes is studied in controlled environments to determine the effect of carbon dioxide levels on enzyme activity. Results indicate a direct relationship between the denitrifier enzyme activity and carbon dioxide tension. There is a three to 24 fold increase in the enzyme activity among plants grown in an environment with elevated carbon dioxide partial pressure.

Although terrestrial atmospheric [CO.sub.2] levels will not reach 1000 µ mol [mol.sup.-1] (0.1%) for decades, [CO.sub.2] levels in growth chambers and greenhouses routinely exceed that concentration. [CO.sub.2] levels in life support systems in space can exceed 10 000 µ mol [mol.sup.-1] (1%). Numerous studies have examined [CO.sub.2] effects up to 1000 µ mol [mol.sup.-1] but biochemical measurements indicate that the beneficial effects of [CO.sub.2] can continue beyond this concentration. We studied the effects of near-optimal ([[approximately 1200 µ mol [mol.sup.-1] and super-optimal [CO.sub.2] levels (2400 µ mol [mol.sup.-1] on yield of two cultivars of hydroponically grown wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in 12 trials in growth chambers. Increasing [CO.sub.2] from sub-optimal to near-optimal (350-1200 µ mol [mol.sup.-1] increased vegetative growth by 25% and seed yield by 15% in both cultivars. Yield increases were primarily the result of an increased number of heads per square meter. Further elevation of [CO.sub.2] to 2500 µ mol [mol.sup.-1] reduced seed yield by 22% (P [is less than] 0.001) in cv. Veery-10 and by 15% (P [is less than] 0.001) in cv. USU-Apogee. Super-optimal [CO.sub.2] did not decrease the number of heads per square meter, but reduced seeds per head by 10% and mass per seed by 11%. The toxic effect of [CO.sub.2] was similar over a range of light levels from half to full sunlight. Subsequent trials revealed that super-optimal [CO.sub.2] during the interval between 2 wk before and after anthesis mimicked the effect of constant super-optimal [CO.sub.2]. Furthermore, near-optimal [CO.sub.2] during the same interval mimicked the effect of constant near-optimal [CO.sub2]. Nutrient concentration of leaves and heads was not affected by [CO.sub.2]. These results suggest that super-optimal [CO.sub.2] inhibits some process that occurs near the time of seed set resulting in decreased seed set, seed mass, and yield., Most studies on the biological effects of elevated [CO.sub.2] have focused on plant responses to concentrations below 1000 µ mol [mol.sup.-1] (1000 ppm; 0.1%; 100 Pa at sea level) [CO.sub.2] [...]

Photons during the dark period delay flowering in short-day plants (SDP). Red photons applied at night convert phytochromes to the active far-red absorbing form (Pfr), leading to inhibition of flowering. Far-red photons (greater than 700 nm) re-induce flowering when applied after a pulse of red photons during the dark period. However, far-red photons at sufficiently high intensity and duration delay flowering in sensitive species. Mechanistically, this response occurs because phytochrome-red (Pr) absorbance is not zero beyond 700 nm. We applied nighttime photons from near infrared (NIR) LEDs (peak 850 nm) over a 12 h dark period. Flowering was delayed in Glycine max and Cannabis sativa (two photosensitive species) by 3 and 12 days, respectively, as the flux of photons from NIR LEDs was increased up to 83 and 116 μmol m-2 s-1. This suggests that long wavelength photons from NIR LEDs can activate phytochromes (convert Pr to Pfr) and thus alter plant development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ratio of active phytochrome (Pfr) to total phytochrome (Pr + Pfr), called phytochrome photo-equilibrium (PPE; also called phytochrome photostationary state, PSS) has been used to explain shade avoidance responses in both natural and controlled environments. PPE is commonly estimated using measurements of the spectral photon distribution (SPD) above the canopy and photoconversion coefficients. This approach has effectively predicted morphological responses when only red and far-red (FR) photon fluxes have varied, but controlled environment research often utilizes unique ratios of wavelengths so a more rigorous evaluation of the predictive ability of PPE on morphology is warranted. Estimations of PPE have rarely incorporated the optical effects of spectral distortion within a leaf caused by pigment absorbance and photon scattering. We studied stem elongation rate in the model plant cucumber under diverse spectral backgrounds over a range of one to 45% FR (total photon flux density, 400–750 nm, of 400 μmol m–2 s–1) and found that PPE was not predictive when blue and green varied. Preferential absorption of red and blue photons by chlorophyll results in an SPD that is relatively enriched in green and FR at the phytochrome molecule within a cell. This can be described by spectral distortion functions for specific layers of a leaf. Multiplying the photoconversion coefficients by these distortion functions yields photoconversion weighting factors that predict phytochrome conversion at the site of photon perception within leaf tissue. Incorporating spectral distortion improved the predictive value of PPE when phytochrome was assumed to be homogeneously distributed within the whole leaf. In a supporting study, the herbicide norflurazon was used to remove chlorophyll in seedlings. Using distortion functions unique to either green or white cotyledons, we came to the same conclusions as with whole plants in the longer-term study. Leaves of most species have similar spectral absorbance so this approach for predicting PPE should be broadly applicable. We provide a table of the photoconversion weighting factors. Our analysis indicates that the simple, intuitive ratio of FR (700–750 nm) to total photon flux (far-red fraction) is also a reliable predictor of morphological responses like stem length. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

LED technology facilitates a range of spectral quality, which can be used to optimize photosynthesis, plant shape and secondary metabolism. We conducted three studies to investigate the effect of blue photon fraction on yield and quality of medical hemp. Conditions were varied among studies to evaluate potential interactions with environment, but all environmental conditions other than the blue photon fraction were maintained constant among the five-chambers in each study. The photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD, 400 to 700 nm) was rigorously maintained at the set point among treatments in each study by raising the fixtures. The lowest fraction of blue photons was 4% from HPS, and increased to 9.8, 10.4, 16, and 20% from LEDs. There was a consistent, linear, 12% decrease in yield in each study as the fraction of blue photons increased from 4 to 20%. Dry flower yield ranged from 500 to 750 g m-2. This resulted in a photon conversion efficacy of 0.22 to 0.36 grams dry flower mass yield per mole of photons. Yield was higher at a PPFD of 900 than at 750 μmol m-2 s-1. There was no effect of spectral quality on CBD or THC concentration. CBD and THC were 8% and 0.3% at harvest in trials one and two, and 12% and 0.5% in trial three. The CBD/THC ratio was about 25 to 1 in all treatments and studies. The efficacy of the fixtures ranged from 1.7 (HPS) to 2.5 μmol per joule (white+red LED). Yield under the white+red LED fixture (10.4% blue) was 4.6% lower than the HPS on a per unit area basis, but was 27% higher on a per dollar of electricity basis. These findings suggest that fixture efficacy and initial cost of the fixture are more important for return on investment than spectral distribution at high photon flux. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Blue light induced stomatal opening has been studied by applying a short pulse (~5 to 60 s) of blue light to a background of saturating photosynthetic red photons, but little is known about steady‐state stomatal responses. Here we report stomatal responses to blue light at high and low CO2 concentrations. Steady‐state stomatal conductance (gs) of C3 plants increased asymptotically with increasing blue light to a maximum at 20% blue (120 μmol m−2 s−1). This response was consistent from 200 to 800 μmol mol−1 atmospheric CO2 (Ca). In contrast, blue light induced only a transient stomatal opening (~5 min) in C4 species above a Ca of 400 μmol mol−1. Steady‐state gs of C4 plants generally decreased with increasing blue intensity. The net photosynthetic rate of all species decreased above 20% blue because blue photons have lower quantum yield (moles carbon fixed per mole photons absorbed) than red photons. Our findings indicate that photosynthesis, rather than a blue light signal, plays a dominant role in stomatal regulation in C4 species. Additionally, we found that blue light affected only stomata on the illuminated side of the leaf. Contrary to widely held belief, the blue light‐induced stomatal opening minimally enhanced photosynthesis and consistently decreased water use efficiency. Summary Statement: Short‐term stomatal responses to pulsed blue light do not predict longer term steady‐state responses, which interacts with photosynthesis‐dependent stomatal regulation. Additionally, the blue light‐induced stomatal opening minimally enhanced photosynthesis and consistently decreased water use efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Far-red photons regulate shade avoidance responses and can have powerful effects on plant morphology and radiation capture. Recent studies have shown that far-red photons (700 to 750 nm) efficiently drive photosynthesis when added to traditionally defined photosynthetic photons (400–700 nm). But the long-term effects of far-red photons on canopy quantum yield have not yet been determined. We grew lettuce in a four-chamber, steady-state canopy gas-exchange system to separately quantify canopy photon capture, quantum yield for CO2 fixation, and carbon use efficiency. These measurements facilitate a mechanistic understanding of the effect of far-red photons on the components of plant growth. Day-time photosynthesis and night-time respiration of lettuce canopies were continuously monitored from seedling to harvest in five replicate studies. Plants were grown under a background of either red/blue or white light, each background with or without 15% (50 μmol m−2 s−1) of far-red photons substituting for photons between 400 and 700 nm. All four treatments contained 31.5% blue photons, and an equal total photon flux from 400 to 750 nm of 350 μmol m−2 s−1. Both treatments with far-red photons had higher canopy photon capture, increased daily carbon gain (net photosynthesis minus respiration at night), and 29 to 31% more biomass than control treatments. Canopy quantum yield was similar among treatments (0.057 ± 0.002 mol of CO2 fixed in gross photosynthesis per mole of absorbed photons integrated over 400 to 750 nm). Carbon use efficiency (daily carbon gain/gross photosynthesis) was also similar for mature plants (0.61 ± 0.02). Photosynthesis increased linearly with increasing photon capture and had a common slope among all four treatments, which demonstrates that the faster growth with far-red photon substitution was caused by enhanced photon capture through increased leaf expansion. The equivalent canopy quantum yield among treatments indicates that the absorbed far-red photons were equally efficient for photosynthesis when acting synergistically with the 400–700 nm photons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a strong need for synthetic yet realistic distribution system test data sets that are as diverse, large, and complex to solve as real systems. Such data sets can facilitate the development of advanced algorithms and the assessment of emerging distributed energy resources while avoiding the need to acquire proprietary critical infrastructure or private data. Such synthetic data sets, however, are useful only if they are realistic enough to look and behave similarly to actual systems. This paper presents a comprehensive framework for validating synthetic distribution data sets using a three-pronged statistical, operational, and expert validation approach. It also presents a set of statistical and operational metric targets for achieving realistic data sets based on detailed characterization of more than 10,000 real U.S. utility feeders. The paper demonstrates the use of the proposed validation approach to validate three large-scale synthetic data sets developed by the authors representing Santa Fe, New Mexico; Greensboro, North Carolina; and the San Francisco Bay Area, California. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Far‐red photons (701–750 nm) are abundant in sunlight but are considered inactive for photosynthesis and are thus excluded from the definition of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR; 400–700 nm). Several recent studies have shown that far‐red photons synergistically interact with shorter wavelength photons to increase leaf photochemical efficiency. The value of far‐red photons in canopy photosynthesis has not been studied. Here, we report the effects of far‐red photons on single leaf and canopy photosynthesis in 14 diverse crop species. Adding far‐red photons (up to 40%) to a background of shorter wavelength photons caused an increase in canopy photosynthesis equal to adding 400–700 nm photons. Far‐red alone minimally increased photosynthesis. This indicates that far‐red photons are equally efficient at driving canopy photosynthesis when acting synergistically with traditionally defined photosynthetic photons. Measurements made using LEDs with peak wavelength of 711, 723, or 746 nm showed that the magnitude of the effect was less at longer wavelengths. The consistent response among diverse species indicates that the mechanism is common in higher plants. These results suggest that far‐red photons (701–750 nm) should be included in the definition of PAR. Canopy photosynthetic responses of 14 species indicate that far‐red photons (701–750 nm) are equally efficient at driving photosynthesis when acting synergistically with traditionally defined photosynthetic photons (400–700 nm). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An automated method of determining tree water status would enable tree fruit growers, foresters and arborists to reduce water consumption, reduce orchard maintenance costs and improve fruit quality. Automated measurements could also be used to irrigate based on need rather than on fixed schedules. Numerous automated approaches have been studied; all are difficult to implement. Electromagnetic sensors that measure volumetric water content can be inserted in tree trunks to determine relative changes in tree water status. We performed automated measurements of dielectric permittivity using four commercially available electromagnetic sensors in fruit tree trunks over the 2016 growing season. These sensors accurately measure the ratio of air and water in soils, but tree trunks have minimal air-filled porosity. The sensors do respond, however, to bound and unbound water and the relative change in the output of the sensors thus provides an indication of this ratio. Sapwood is the hydro-dynamically responsive component of trunk anatomy and is nearest the bark. Sensor response improved when the waveguides were exposed to a greater percentage of sapwood. Irrigation-induced increases of approximately 0.5 MPa in stem water potential were associated with 0.5 unit increases in dielectric permittivity. Electromagnetic sensors respond to bound water in trees and thus have the potential to indicate tree water status, especially when the sensor rods are in contact with sapwood. Sensor modifications and/or innovative installation techniques could enable automated measurements of tree water status that could be used to precision irrigate trees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A promising approach for the synthesis of high value reduced compounds is to couple bacteria to the cathode of an electrochemical cell, with delivery of electrons from the electrode driving reductive biosynthesis in the bacteria. Such systems have been used to reduce CO2 to acetate and other C-based compounds. Here, we report an electrosynthetic system that couples a diazotrophic, photoautotrophic bacterium, Rhodopseudomonas palustris TIE-1, to the cathode of an electrochemical cell through the mediator H2 that allows reductive capture of both CO2 and N2 with all of the energy coming from the electrode and infrared (IR) photons. R. palustris TIE-1 was shown to utilize a narrow band of IR radiation centered around 850 nm to support growth under both photoheterotrophic, non-diazotrophic and photoautotrophic, diazotrophic conditions with growth rates similar to those achieved using broad spectrum incandescent light. The bacteria were also successfully cultured in the cathodic compartment of an electrochemical cell with the sole source of electrons coming from electrochemically generated H2, supporting reduction of both CO2 and N2 using 850 nm photons as an energy source. Growth rates were similar to non-electrochemical conditions, revealing that the electrochemical system can fully support bacterial growth. Faradaic efficiencies for N2 and CO2 reduction were 8.5 and 47%, respectively. These results demonstrate that a microbial-electrode hybrid system can be used to achieve reduction and capture of both CO2 and N2 using low energy IR radiation and electrons provided by an electrode. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Complex ensembles of energy simulation models have become significant components of renewable energy research in recent years. Often the significant computational cost, high‐dimensional structure, and other complexities hinder researchers from fully utilizing these data sources for knowledge building. Researchers at National Renewable Energy Laboratory have developed an immersive visualization workflow to dramatically improve user engagement and analysis capability through a combination of low‐dimensional structure analysis, deep learning, and custom visualization methods. We present case studies for two energy simulation platforms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Halogeton ( Halogeton glomeratus) is an invasive species that displaces Gardner's saltbush ( Atriplex gardneri) on saline rangelands, whereas, forage kochia ( Bassia prostrata) potentially can rehabilitate these ecosystems. Salinity tolerance has been hypothesized as the predominant factor affecting frequency of these species. This study compared relative salinity tolerance of these species, and tall wheatgrass ( Thinopyrum ponticum) and alfalfa ( Medicago sativa). Plants were evaluated in hydroponics, eliminating the confounding effects of drought, for 28 days at 0, 150, 200, 300, 400, 600, and 800 mmol/L NaCl. Survival, growth, and ion accumulation were determined. Alfalfa and tall wheatgrass shoot mass were reduced to 32% of the control at 150 mmol/L. Forage kochia survived to 600 mmol/L, but mass was reduced at all salinity levels. Halogeton and Gardner's saltbush increased or maintained shoot mass up to 400 mmol/L. Furthermore, both actively accumulated sodium in shoots, indicating that Na+ was the principle ion in osmotic adjustment, whereas, forage kochia exhibited passive (linear) Na+ accumulation as salinity increased. This study confirmed the halophytic nature of these three species, but, moreover, discovered that Gardner's saltbush was as saline tolerant as halogeton, whereas, forage kochia was less tolerant. Therefore, factors other than salinity tolerance drive these species' differential persistence in saline-desert ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Silicon (Si) is a beneficial element that is usually ample in mineral soil solution, but it is minimally bioavailable from soilless substrates. Several Si additives are commercially available, but the rate of dissolution of Si is not well-characterized. The ideal additive would steadily release bioavailable Si over the crop lifecycle. We report the long-term (120 days) dissolution of Si from soilless substrates and substrate additives. Studies involving gently agitated containers with deionized water indicated that perlite, sphagnum peat, vermiculite, and coconut coir released less than 0.03 mmol Si per liter of substrate per day. Rice hulls and wollastonite (CaSiO3) had 7- to 130-times faster rates of dissolution in this system; therefore, they were further studied in peat-based media. Dissolution of Si from the addition of 1 g wollastonite per liter of peat peaked at day 10 at 2.1 mmol Si per liter of media per leaching event (15% by volume); then, it gradually decreased over 120 days. The peak dissolution of Si amended with 12% rice hulls was similar, but it gradually increased over time. The concentrations of nine heavy metals in plant tissue were compared with untreated control plants to determine wollastonite and steel slag. The concentration of some elements statistically increased, but all concentrations were well below the legal concentration limits of these elements for human consumption in the United States. These results indicate that both wollastonite and rice hulls steadily release Si for up to 4 months; therefore, they are good sources of Si for container-grown crops in soilless media. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Power use in data centers and high-performance computing (HPC) facilities has grown in tandem with increases in the size and number of these facilities. Substantial innovation is needed to enable meaningful reduction in energy footprints in leadership-class HPC systems. In this paper, we focus on characterizing and investigating application-level power usage. We demonstrate potential methods for predicting power usage based on a priori and in situ characteristics. Finally, we highlight a potential use case of this method through a simulated power-aware scheduler using historical jobs from a real scientific HPC system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite decades of research, the effects of spectral quality on plant growth, and development are not well understood. Much of our current understanding comes from studies with daily integrated light levels that are less than 10% of summer sunlight thus making it difficult to characterize interactions between light quality and quantity. Several studies have reported that growth is increased under fluorescent lamps compared to mixtures of wavelengths from LEDs. Conclusions regarding the effect of green light fraction range from detrimental to beneficial. Here we report the effects of eight blue and green light fractions at two photosynthetic photon fluxes (PPF; 200 and 500 μmol m-2 s-1; with a daily light integral of 11.5 and 29 mol m-2 d-1) on growth (dry mass), leaf expansion, stem and petiole elongation, and whole-plant net assimilation of seven diverse plant species. The treatments included cool, neutral, and warm white LEDs, and combinations of blue, green and/or red LEDs. At the higher PPF (500), increasing blue light in increments from 11 to 28% reduced growth in tomato, cucumber, and pepper by 22, 26, and 14% respectively, but there was no statistically significant effect on radish, soybean, lettuce or wheat. At the lower PPF (200), increasing blue light reduced growth only in tomato (41%). The effects of blue light on growth were mediated by changes in leaf area and radiation capture, with minimal effects on whole-plant net-assimilation. In contrast to the significant effects of blue light, increasing green light in increments from 0 to 30% had a relatively small effect on growth, leaf area and net assimilation at either low or high PPF. Surprisingly, growth of three of the seven species was not reduced by a treatment with 93% green light compared to the broad spectrum treatments. Collectively, these results are consistent with a shade avoidance response associated with either low blue or high green light fractions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of LED technology is commonly assumed to result in significantly cooler leaf temperatures than high pressure sodium technology. To evaluate the magnitude of this effect, we measured radiation incident to and absorbed by a leaf under four radiation sources: clear sky sunlight in the field, sunlight in a glass greenhouse, and indoor plants under either high pressure sodium or light emitting diodes. We then applied a common mechanistic energy-balance model to compare leaf to air temperature difference among the radiation sources and environments. At equal photosynthetic photon flux, our results indicate that the effect of plant water status and leaf evaporative cooling is much larger than the effect of radiation source. If plants are not water stressed, leaves in all four radiation sources were typically within 2°C of air temperature. Under clear sky conditions, cool sky temperatures mean that leaves in the field are always cooler than greenhouse or indoor plants-when photosynthetic photon flux, stomatal conductance, wind speed, vapor pressure deficit, and leaf size are equivalent. As water stress increases and cooling via transpiration decreases, leaf temperatures can increase well above air temperature. In a near-worst case scenario of water stress and low wind, our model indicates that leaves would increase 6°, 8°, 10°, and 12°C above air temperature under field, LED, greenhouse, and HPS scenarios, respectively. Because LED fixtures emit much of their heat through convection rather than radiative cooling, they result in slightly cooler leaf temperatures than leaves in greenhouses and under HPS fixtures, but the effect of LED technology on leaf temperature is smaller than is often assumed. Quantifying the thermodynamic outputs of these lamps, and their physiological consequences, will allow both researchers and the horticulture industry to make informed decisions when employing these technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]