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The majority of forest cover in the British Uplands had been lost by the beginning of the Nineteenth Century, because of felling followed by overgrazing by sheep and deer. The situation remained unchanged until a government policy of afforestation, mainly by exotic conifers, after the First World War up to the present day. This paper analyses the distribution of these predominantly coniferous plantations, and shows how they occupy specific parts of upland landscapes in different zones throughout Britain Whilst some landscapes are dominated by these new forests, elsewhere the blocks of trees are more localised. Although these forests virtually eliminate native ground vegetation, except in rides and unplanted land, the major negative impacts are at the landscape level. For example, drainage systems are altered and ancient cultural landscape patterns are destroyed. These impacts are summarised and possible ways of amelioration are discussed. By contrast, in recent years, a series of projects have been set up to restore native forest cover, as opposed to the extensive plantations of exotic species. Accordingly, the paper then provides three examples of such initiatives designed to restore native forests to otherwise bare landscapes, as well as setting them into a policy context. Whilst such projects cover a limited proportion of the British Uplands they nevertheless restore forest to landscapes at a local level.

Factors influencing grazing behavior in species‐rich grasslands have been little studied. Methodologies have mostly had a primary focus on grasslands with lower floristic diversity.We test the hypothesis that grazing behavior is influenced by both animal and plant factors and investigate the relative importance of these factors, using a novel combination of video technology and vegetation classification to analyze bite and step rates.In a semi‐natural, partially wooded grassland in northern Estonia, images of the vegetation being grazed and records of steps and bites were obtained from four video cameras, each mounted on the sternum of a sheep, during 41 animal‐hours of observation over five days. Plant species lists for the immediate field of view were compiled. Images were partnered by direct observation of the nearest‐neighbor relationships of the sheep. TWINSPAN, a standard vegetation classification technique allocating species lists to objectively defined classes by a principal components procedure, was applied to the species lists and 25 vegetation classes (15 open pasture and 10 woodland) were identified from the images.Taking bite and step rates as dependent variables, relative importance of animal factors (sheep identity), relative importance of day, and relative importance of plant factors (vegetation class) were investigated. The strongest effect on bite rates was of vegetation class. Sheep identity was less influential. When the data from woodland were excluded, sheep identity was more important than vegetation class as a source of variability in bite rate on open pasture.The original hypothesis is therefore supported, and we further propose that, at least with sheep in species‐rich open pastures, animal factors will be more important in determining grazing behavior than plant factors. We predict quantifiable within‐breed and between‐breed differences, which could be exploited to optimize conservation grazing practices and contribute to the sustainability of extensive grazing systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cattle Bos taurus can perform valuable ecological functions in the maintenance of high nature value (HNV) pastoral systems. They have also attracted attention as potentially filling the ecological niches of megaherbivores, notably the extinct aurochs Bos primigenius, in rewilding initiatives. Native cattle breeds are recognized under the 1992 Rio Convention as components of biodiversity. They are used in HNV settings, but their conservation as breeds has rarely been an important consideration for their management in these contexts.The Chillingham herd has been kept under minimal management in Chillingham Park (northern England) for several centuries. Chillingham Park is not a rewilding scenario, but the long‐term study of the cattle can be informative for the design of rewilding schemes that involve cattle as megaherbivores. The pastures of the park are species‐rich seminatural grasslands.To 2004, pasture management was influenced by the need to provide herbage for a flock of sheep that was under separate ownership, as well as for the cattle. Surveys of the vegetation conducted in 1979 and 2006–2008 showed a decline of plant species richness (species per 100 m2 quadrat) from 33.8 in 1979 to 22.6 in 2006–2008. This was acceptable as the conservation priority has always been the cattle herd. With removal of the sheep from 2004, it became possible to include recovery of plant diversity as a management goal.In 2017, the cattle numbered 111 (64 in 1979). Plant species richness in 2017 had increased to 26.3 species per quadrat. It has therefore been possible at Chillingham both to conserve the cattle herd and to improve plant diversity. While providing basic information of relevance to the management of cattle in free‐ranging situations, this study also suggests a general principle, that the management of pastoral landscapes by native breeds of cattle, can deliver multiple conservation benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Countryside Survey (CS) of Great Britain (GB) provides a unique and statistically robust series of datasets, consisting of an extensive set of repeated ecological measurements at a national scale, covering a time span of 29 years. CS was first undertaken in 1978 to provide a baseline for ecological and land use change monitoring in the rural environment of GB, following a stratified random design, based on 1 km squares. Originally, eight random 1 km squares were drawn from each of 32 environmental classes, thus comprising 256 sample squares in the 1978 survey. The number of these sites increased to 382 in 1984, 506 in 1990, 569 in 1998 and 591 in 2007. Detailed information regarding vegetation types and land use was mapped in all five surveys, allowing reporting by defined standard habitat classifications. Additionally, point and linear landscape features (such as trees and hedgerows) are available from all surveys after 1978. From these stratified, randomly located sample squares, information can be converted into national estimates, with associated error terms. Other data, relating to soils, freshwater and vegetation, were also sampled on analogous dates. However, the present paper describes only the surveys of landscape features and habitats. The resulting datasets provide a unique, comprehensive, quantitative ecological coverage of extent and change in these features in GB. Basic results are presented and their implications discussed. However, much opportunity for further analyses remains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since 1978, a series of national surveys (Countryside Surveys) have been carried out by the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (formerly the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology) to gather data on the natural environment in Great Britain. As the sampling framework for these surveys is not optimised to yield data on rarer or more specialised habitats, a survey was commissioned by the then Department of the Environment (DOE, now the Department for Environment Food & Rural Affairs, DEFRA), in the 1990s to carry out additional survey work in English landscapes which contained semi-natural habitats that were perceived to be under threat, or which represented areas of concern to the Ministry. The landscapes were: lowland heath, chalk and limestone grasslands, coasts and uplands. These landscapes were chosen from a list identified as 'key habitats' in the Countryside Stewardship Scheme, an agri-environment scheme initiated in 1991. The survey design was a series of gridded, stratified, randomly selected 1 km squares taken as representative of classes derived from environmental classifications (or spatial masks) for each of the four landscape types in England determined from a statistical land classification. This resulted in a total of 213 of these squares being surveyed in the summers of 1992 and 1993, with information being collected regarding vegetation species, land cover, landscape features and land use. Data from the survey were collected using standardised, repeatable methods, with the database now providing a valuable baseline against which future ecological changes, resulting from a range of different drivers, may be compared. Following the surveys, the data were analysed and described in a series of contract reports showing that valuable habitats were restricted in all landscapes and that the majority were within designated land. The data set provides major potential for analyses, beyond those published in the reports published in 1996, for example in relation to climate change, agri-environment policies and land management. Precise locations of the plots are restricted, largely for reasons of landowner confidentiality. However, the representative nature of the data set makes it highly valuable for evaluating the status of the associated landscapes and vegetation covered. Both land cover data and vegetation plot data were collected during the surveys in 1992 and 1993, and are available via the following DOI: https://doi.org/10.5285/7aefe6aa-0760-4b6d-9473-fad8b960abd4. The spatial masks are also available from: https://doi.org/10.5285/dc583be3-3649-4df6-b67e-b0f40b4ec895. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Countryside Survey (CS) of Great Britain (GB) provides a unique and statistically robust series of datasets, consisting of an extensive set of repeated ecological measurements at a national scale, covering a time span of 29 years. CS was first undertaken in 1978 to provide a baseline for ecological and land use change monitoring in the rural environment of GB, following a stratified random design, based on 1 km squares. Originally, eight random 1 km squares were drawn from each of 32 environmental classes, thus comprising 256 sample squares in the 1978 survey. The number of these sites increased to 382 in 1984, 506 in 1990, 569 in 1998 and 591 in 2007. Detailed information regarding vegetation types and land use was mapped in all five surveys, allowing reporting by defined standard habitat classifications. Additionally, point and linear landscape features (such as trees and hedgerows) are available from all surveys after 1978. From these stratified, randomly located sample squares, information can be converted into national estimates, with associated error terms. Other data, relating to soils, freshwater and vegetation, were also sampled on analogous dates. However, the present paper describes only the surveys of landscape features and habitats. The resulting datasets provide a unique, comprehensive, quantitative ecological coverage of extent and change in these features in GB. Basic results are presented and their implications discussed. However, much opportunity for further analyses remains. Data from each of the survey years are available via the following DOIs: Landscape area data 1978: http://doi.org/10.5285/86c017ba-dc62-46f0-ad13-c862bf31740e, 1984: http://doi.org/10.5285/b656bb43-448d-4b2c-aade-7993aa243ea3, 1990: http://doi.org/10.5285/94f664e5-10f2-4655-bfe6-44d745f5dca7, 1998: http://doi.org/10.5285/1e050028-5c55-42f4-a0ea-c895d827b824, and 2007: http://doi.org/10.5285/bf189c57-61eb-4339-a7b3-d2e81fdde28d; Landscape linear feature data 1984: http://doi.org/10.5285/a3f5665c-94b2-4c46-909e-a98be97857e5, 1990: http://doi.org/10.5285/311daad4-bc8c-485a-bc8a-e0d054889219, 1998: http://doi.org/10.5285/8aaf6f8c-c245-46bb-8a2a-f0db012b2643, and 2007: http://doi.org/10.5285/e1d31245-4c0a-4dee-b36c-b23f1a697f88; Landscape point feature data 1984: http://doi.org/10.5285/124b872e-036e-4dd3-8316-476b5f42c16e, 1990: http://doi.org/10.5285/1481bc63-80d7-4d18-bcba-8804aa0a9e1b, 1998: http://doi.org/10.5285/ed10944f-40c8-4913-b3f5-13c8e844e153, and 2007: http://doi.org/10.5285/55dc5fd7-d3f7-4440-b8a7-7187f8b0550b. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Countryside Survey (CS) of Great Britain provides a globally unique series of datasets, consisting of an extensive set of repeated ecological measurements at a national scale, covering a time span of 29 years. CS was first undertaken in 1978 to monitor ecological and land use change in Britain using standardised procedures for recording ecological data from representative 1 km squares throughout the country. The same sites, with some additional squares, were used for subsequent surveys of vegetation undertaken in 1990, 1998 and 2007, with the intention of future surveys. Other data records include soils, freshwater habitats and invertebrates, and land cover and landscape feature diversity and extents. These data have been recorded in the same locations on analogous dates. However, the present paper describes only the details of the vegetation surveys. The survey design is a series of gridded, stratified, randomly selected 1 km squares taken as representative of classes derived from a statistical environmental classification of Britain. In the 1978 survey, 256 one-kilometre sample squares were recorded, increasing to 506 in 1990, 569 in 1998 and 591 in 2007. Initially each square contained up to 11 dispersed vegetation plots but additional plots were later placed in different features so that eventually up to 36 additional sampling plots were recorded, all of which can be relocated where possible (unless the plot has been lost, for example as a consequence of building work), providing a total of 16 992 plots by 2007. Plots are estimated to have a precise relocation accuracy of 85 %. A range of plots located in different land cover types and landscape features (for example, field boundaries) are included. Although a range of analyses have already been carried out, with changes in the vegetation being related to a range of drivers at local and national scales, there is major potential for further analyses, for example in relation to climate change. Although the precise locations of the plots are restricted, largely for reasons of landowner confidentiality, sample sites are intended to be representative of larger areas, and many potential opportunities for further analyses remain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To evaluate progress on political biodiversity objectives, biodiversity monitoring provides information on whether intended results are being achieved. Despite scientific proof that monitoring and evaluation increase the (cost) efficiency of policy measures, cost estimates for monitoring schemes are seldom available, hampering their inclusion in policy programme budgets., Empirical data collected from 12 case studies across Europe were used in a power analysis to estimate the number of farms that would need to be sampled per major farm type to detect changes in species richness over time for four taxa (vascular plants, earthworms, spiders and bees). A sampling design was developed to allocate spatially, across Europe, the farms that should be sampled., Cost estimates are provided for nine monitoring scenarios with differing robustness for detecting temporal changes in species numbers. These cost estimates are compared with the Common Agricultural Policy ( CAP) budget (2014-2020) to determine the budget allocation required for the proposed farmland biodiversity monitoring., Results show that the bee indicator requires the highest number of farms to be sampled and the vascular plant indicator the lowest. The costs for the nine farmland biodiversity monitoring scenarios corresponded to 0·01%-0·74% of the total CAP budget and to 0·04%-2·48% of the CAP budget specifically allocated to environmental targets., Synthesis and applications. The results of the cost scenarios demonstrate that, based on the taxa and methods used in this study, a Europe-wide farmland biodiversity monitoring scheme would require a modest share of the Common Agricultural Policy budget. The monitoring scenarios are flexible and can be adapted or complemented with alternate data collection options (e.g. at national scale or voluntary efforts), data mobilization, data integration or modelling efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 1971, a comprehensive ecological survey of the native pinewoods of Scotland was carried out by the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology. The survey was initiated as a consequence of growing concern about the status of the pinewood resource. Since the twentieth century, this unique habitat is widely recognised, not only by ecologists for its inherent biodiversity but also by the general public for its cultural and amenity value. The survey, utilising demonstrably repeatable methods, collected information on ground flora, soils, forest structure and also general site information from the major 27 sites of the 35 sites identified as truly native pinewoods in Scotland. The results from the survey prompted the organisation of an international symposium in 1975, which set the conservation agenda for the old Caledonian pinewoods. The data collected during the 1971 survey are now publicly available via the following DOI: doi:10/7xb ("Habitat, vegetation, tree and soil data from Native Pinewoods in Scotland, 1971"). Although the data are now 44 years old, the repeatable methods will allow for a resurvey to take place, in order to assess changes in the vegetation, habitats and tree composition in a statistically robust manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A survey of the natural environment was undertaken in Shetland in 1974, after concern was expressed that large-scale development from the new oil industry could threaten the natural features of the islands. A framework was constructed by the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology on which to select samples for the survey. The vegetation and habitat data that were collected, along with the sampling framework, have recently been made public via the following doi:10.5285/06fc0b8c-cc4a-4ea8-b4be-f8bd7ee25342 (Terrestrial habitat, vegetation and soil data from Shetland, 1974) and doi:10.5285/f1b3179e-b446-473d-a5fb-4166668da146 (Land Classification of Shetland 1974). In addition to providing valuable information about the state of the natural environment of Shetland, the repeatable and statistically robust methods developed in the survey were used to underpin the Countryside Survey, Great Britain's national long-term integrated environmental monitoring programme. The demonstration of the effectiveness of the methodology indicates that a repeat of the Shetland survey would yield statistics about ecological changes in the islands, such as those arising from the impacts of the oil industry, a range of socio-economic impacts, and perhaps climate change. Currently no such figures are available, although there is much information on the sociological impacts, as well as changes in agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gardening is a popular pastime, but commercial horticulture is responsible for the introduction of alien species and contributes to invasions in a variety of ways. Although an extensive international literature is available on plant invasions, it is still important at the national level to examine the influence of local factors. Accordingly, 17 nurseries in Estonia that cultivated and sold perennial alien species were selected, and a list of species and prices was compiled. The relationships between species status, and factors such as their abundance in the wild were examined statistically. A qualitative list of the nationally problematic species among herbaceous perennials was also completed. A total of 880 taxa were recorded, of which 10.3% were native and 89.7% alien. In all, 87.3% of the alien species were still confined to cultivated areas. The ecological and socio-economic characteristics of the taxa were described, and lists of the families of casual, naturalised and invasive aliens were provided. Both native and increasing wild alien species have a very similar profile on the market. Alien species that are less expensive, widely available and have more cultivars per species on the market are also more likely to escape. The invasive status and abundance of escaped aliens in an area increases with residence time. In general, socio-economic factors create new and reflect previous propagule pressures from commercial horticulture, which continuously increase the likelihood of alien species surviving and invading new areas. Our findings suggest that these national socio-economic market-related factors explain much of the invasiveness of various perennial ornamental species, and therefore regional and national authorities urgently need to regulate and control the ornamental plant trade to diminish the risk of new invasions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parks where the botanical interest of the sward has been retained are relatively unusual in the British Isles. Chillingham Park, northeast England, has been managed primarily to conserve its native cattle breed and the sward has been of only secondary importance in conservation terms. A liming programme was in operation from 1980 to 2004 in order to secure the nutrition of the cattle herd. The relatively species-rich vegetation was surveyed in 1979; in 2008 plant species richness of sampled quadrats was found to have declined by 23%. Species characteristic of higher soil pH and fertility, increased light and decreased wetness had been favoured, with a decline in stress-tolerating species. Possible causes of these changes include liming and inputs of fixed atmospheric nitrogen. Few if any plant species have been completely lost, and grassland diversity is now the subject of conservation management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. In temperate farmed landscapes conservation policies increasingly emphasize large-scale reductions in land-use intensity. Yet despite a managed reversion to more favourable abiotic conditions, depleted regional species pools may prevent the re-assembly of target communities. 2. Using national-scale survey data recorded across Great Britain in 1998, we investigated the extent to which grassland indicator plant species persisted on potential refuge habitats across a spatial gradient of intensive land cover in lowland 1-km squares. These habitats comprised road verges, field boundaries, watercourse banks and small biotope fragments. Intensive land cover comprised built land, arable and improved grassland. 3. The rate of reduction in indicator species richness across the intensive land cover gradient was significantly lower in all potential refuge features than in surrounding fields and larger areas of habitat. 4. The best refuge locations were watercourse banks and small biotopes. In both cases, indicator species richness was higher than adjacent fields at the lowest intensive land cover and stayed higher as intensive land cover increased. 5. However, as intensive land cover increased, plant traits associated with higher nutrient availability were more prominently represented among indicator species. 6. Although richer assemblages of indicator species persisted on refuge features, population sizes are likely to be small, because of species–area effects, and also vulnerable to nutrient surpluses and reduced or inappropriate disturbance. 7. Synthesis and applications. Across the British lowlands, linear landscape features and small habitat fragments can provide limited safe havens for unimproved grassland plant species. However, the identity of refuge features and their species richness and composition are likely to vary with local conditions. Three activities are therefore paramount in assessing their role in larger scale extensification schemes: (i) development of rapid ways of assessing the plant diversity and distribution of refuge features in local areas; (ii) quantification of the risks posed to the viability of residual source populations through implementation of different options for incorporating them into extensification schemes; (iii) maximization of scheme performance by targeting landscapes with sufficient residual diversity to enable increases in population size of the target species in the medium term. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: 1. Ellenberg’s indicator values scale the flora of a region along gradients reflecting light, temperature, continentality, moisture, soil pH, fertility and salinity. They can be used to monitor environmental change. 2. Ellenberg values can be extended from central Europe, for which they were defined, to nearby parts of Europe. Given a database of quadrat samples, they can be repredicted by a simple algorithm consisting of two-way weighted averaging, followed by local regression. 3. A database of British samples was assembled from two large surveys. Ellenberg values were repredicted. 4. Except for the indicator of continentality, the correlation of repredicted and original values was in the range 0·72 (light) to 0·91 (moisture). The continentality indicator could not be adequately repredicted by the algorithm, and is unusable in Britain. 5. Discrepancies between original and repredicted values can be attributed to various causes, including wrong original values, differing ecological requirements in Britain and central Europe, biased sampling of the British range of habitats, and the occurrence of small plants in shaded or basic microhabitats within well illuminated or predominantly acid quadrats. 6. The repredicted values were generally reliable, but a small proportion was clearly wrong. Wrong values were due to either inadequate sampling of species’ realized niches in Britain or sampling with quadrats that were too large and included species that were not close associates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a report on the role of transhumance in mountain ecosystem processes and dynamics. Transhumance stock-is a very diverse practice. In some countries, it is mostly historical, whereas in others it is still very much alive. Transhumance links high mountain habitats with agricultural land in the valleys and in some cases adjacent lowlands. Transhumance landscapes are cultural landscapes that have evolved over centuries through the adaptation of human activities to harsh and fragile mountain environments.

Foraging behavior of livestock in species-rich, less intensively managed grassland communities will require different methodologies from those appropriate in floristically simple environments. In this pilot study on sheep in species-rich grassland in northern Estonia, foraging behavior and the plant species of the immediate area grazed by the sheep were registered by continually-recording Go-Pro cameras. From three days of observation of five sheep (706 animal-minutes), foraging behavior was documented. Five hundred and thirty-six still images were sampled, and a plant species list was compiled for each. Each plant species was assigned a score indicating its location, in the ecophysiological sense, on the main environmental gradient. The scores of the plant species present were averaged for each image. Thus, the fine structure of foraging behavior could be studied in parallel with the vegetation of the precise area being grazed. As expected, there was considerable individual variation, and we characterized foraging behavior by quantifying the patterns of interspersion of grazing and non-grazing behaviors. This combination of behavior recording and vegetation classification could enable a numerical analysis of the responses of grazing livestock to vegetation conditions.

This paper presents unique comprehensive quantitative measures of the changes in Spanish rural landscapes, specifically in relation to the Rural-Urban Interface (RUI). Our objective was to investigate the urbanisation process in rural areas of Spain, thus the expansion of the RUI in an environmentally complex study area (it includes arid regions, continental areas or high mountains). The data were produced by the Spanish Rural Landscapes Monitoring System project (SISPARES), which has carried out five separate surveys for 1956, 1984, 1998, 2008 and 2018. SISPARES data provide RUI quantification by identifying urban patches, using aerial images, in a permanent network of 206 stratified random landscape sampling units (4 × 4 km each) deliberately located in rural areas. The cost-effective and spatio-temporal SISPARES approach enables the production of landscape geographical models at each survey date and the modelling of its evolution over each time period. We hypothesised that the RUI expansion did not follow a homogeneous spatio-temporal pattern, and therefore neither did the drivers responsible for it. Building on SISPARES data, we evaluated through CART analyses the relationship of RUI expansion with relevant environmental and anthropogenic driving factors, such as climate, bedrock, landscape composition and human population density. The historical narrative perspective was also used to aid discussion of the results. Historically, Spain contained few areas of RUI, but major changes were determined in the initial study period (1956-1984), which conformed a seminal geographic pattern for subsequent RUI increment. In contrast, the RUI expansion did not increase greatly during the following periods, between 1984 and 2018. The RUI expansion has been primarily driven by anthropogenic factors, constrained by the environmental characteristics of Spain. The expansion pattern is likely to has shifted from a national scale in the 1950s, to a continental scale at later dates as the result of the changes in socio-political scenarios., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Semi-natural grasslands harbour high biodiversity and play a key role in the supply of ecosystem services (ES). However, abandonment, changes in traditional management practices and agricultural intensification constitute a major threat to these grasslands worldwide and these practices have led to declines in species diversity. In this paper the multi-functionality of semi natural-grasslands is assessed from the ES perspective, within a range of common semi-natural grassland types throughout Estonia. The analysis follows a stepwise approach based on the ES cascade model. Firstly, analyses of the relationships between plant species distribution patterns and environmental factors are described. Secondly, the effect of grassland abandonment on plant species diversity, as well as on the presence of rare and protected plant species is tested. In order to overcome the lack of data on ES at the national scale, plant species diversity and soil organic carbon are tested as surrogate indicators for five ESS: pollination, herbs for traditional medicinal use, nutrient cycling, nutrient retention and biomass production. In the final step, the spatial distribution of ES is assessed, based on an ES hotspots map obtained by detecting areas where high levels of plant species diversity and soil organic carbon overlap. The results show that the majority of ES hotspots are present in wooded meadows and pastures. However, there is an important threat to these hotspots because 45% are not eligible for agri-environmental support., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)