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Although there is a large body of evidence for the utility of particular study strategies such as retrieval practice and distributed practice as memory-enhancing instruments, they are seldom used by learners in educational practice. Thus far, the research on the use of these study strategies has focused only on undergraduate university students, oftentimes only investigating a set of predefined strategies. The question, thus, remains whether these results are generalisable to secondary school students. The present study is the first to explore the use of different study strategies by secondary school students. With the use of an open question, 316 secondary school students from three different secondary school levels were asked how they prepare for an exam when they are studying by themselves. The results show that secondary school students use study strategies considered to be suboptimal. In the discussion, we compare our findings with results of previous studies among undergraduate university students.

We investigated intra-individual monitoring and regulation in learning from text in sixth-grade students and their teachers. In Experiment 1, students provided judgments of learning (JOLs) for six texts in one of three cue-prompt conditions (after writing delayed keywords or summaries or without a cue prompt) and then selected texts for restudy. Teachers also judged their students' learning for each text, while seeing -- if present -- the keywords or summaries each student had written for each text, and also selected texts for restudy. Overall, monitoring accuracy was low (0.10 for students, -0.02 for teachers) and did not differ between cue-prompt conditions. Regulation, indexed by the correlation between JOLs and restudy selections, was significant (-0.38 for students, -0.60 for teachers), but was also not affected by cue-prompt condition. In Experiment 2, teachers judged students' comprehension of six texts without knowing the students' names, so that only the keywords and summaries, not prior impressions, could inform judgments. Again, monitoring accuracy was generally low (0.06), but higher for keywords (0.23) than for summaries (-0.10). These results suggest that monitoring intra-individual differences in students' learning is challenging for teachers. Analyses of the diagnosticity and utilization of keywords suggest that these may contain insufficient cues for improving teacher judgments at this level of specificity.

Background: A practical test that measures the information and communication technology (ICT) skills students need for effectively using ICT in primary education has yet to be developed (Oh et al., 2021). This paper reports on the development, validation, and reliability of a test measuring primary school students' ICT skills required for effectively using ICT (the ECC‐ICT test). Objectives: Based on existing literature, three ICT use domains were identified for effectively using ICT: Effective, collaborative, and creativeuse of ICT. For these three domains, 24 corresponding teaching objectives were identified from a widely used digital literacy framework. Thirty‐four test items cover these teaching objectives in an online test. Methods: A mixed‐method approach was used for the ECC‐ICT test. Four pilot rounds (n=25) implemented qualitative interviews for cognitive validity and refining the test items, followed by a qualitative usability study(n=6). Confirmatory factor analysis and ANOVA provided quantitative insight into the large‐scale test administration(n=575). Results and Conclusions: Composite reliability of our conceptual 3‐factor confirmatory model showed that the test reliably measured primary school effective use of ICT (ω = 0.82), collaborative use of ICT (ω = 0.80) and creative use of ICT (ω = 0.64). Convergent validity (ranging from 0.41 to 0.46) was acceptable. Internal consistency (ranging from 0.84 to 0.91) and discriminant validity (HTMT values below 0.90) are good. ANOVA results show that mean test scores are higher for students in higher grade levels (p < 0.001). The post hoc Bonferroni results show that most grade‐by‐grade comparisons are significant (p < 0.001). Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Information and communication technology (ICT) skills are finding their way into national curriculums as teachers implement more digital learning environments.Teachers currently do not have a measurement instrument for the ICT skills primary education students need to learn in a personalised way. What this paper adds: This paper gives teachers a test that reliably measures the effective, collaborative, and creative ICT skills required for primary school students to learn using ICT.To our knowledge, this test is the first of its kind.Al materials to reproduce the test are available digitally for teachers. The implications of study findings for practitioners: For policy, this test can be used to check if a student is ready to use ICT in a self‐regulated setting.With this test, teachers can assess and support students' growth on the effective, collaborative, and creative ICT skills required for primary school students using ICT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Teachers' instructions on learning strategies play a key role on how students study. However, how the effectiveness of learning strategies can be matched to different types of knowledge in a diversity of subject content has remained unexplored. In the present study, we related the effectiveness of learning strategies to different types of knowledge through an umbrella review. Furthermore, using focus-groups interviews, we explored the relation between school subjects and these knowledge types. We concluded that the effects of particular learning strategies vary across different learning objectives of the subjects and we offered suggestions for the instruction of effective learning strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fluently retrieving simple multiplication facts leads to an improvement of overall math scores. In the current study, we investigated how to best reach this fluency in an authentic elementary school setting. We compared the short‐term and long‐term effects of the learning strategies retrieval practice (using flashcards) to a restudy control condition (chanting multiplication facts out loud) on multiplication fact fluency. Forty‐eight second‐grade pupils received an instruction lesson and attended three spaced practice sessions per learning strategy. The learning strategies were counterbalanced across two different sets of multiplication tables in a within‐subjects design. A pre‐test, a five‐minute delay post‐test, and a one‐week delay post‐test were administered. Compared to restudy, retrieval practice led to a stronger short‐term and long‐term increase in the fluency of retrieving multiplication facts. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of retrieval practice on gaining multiplication fact fluency in an authentic classroom setting using original course materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ability to monitor understanding of texts, usually referred to as metacomprehension accuracy, is typically quite poor in adult learners; however, recently interventions have been developed to improve accuracy. In two experiments, we evaluated whether generating delayed keywords prior to judging comprehension improved metacomprehension accuracy for children. For sixth and seventh graders, metacomprehension accuracy was greater when generating keywords. By contrast, for fourth graders, metacomprehension accuracy did not differ across conditions. Improved metacomprehension accuracy led to improved regulation of study. The delayed keyword effect in children reported here is discussed in terms of situation model activation.

The independent cue technique has been developed to test traditional interference theories against inhibition theories of forgetting. In the present study, the authors tested the critical criterion for the independence of independent cues: Studied cues not presented during test (and unrelated to test cues) should not contribute to the retrieval process. Participants first studied a subset of cues (e.g., "rope") that were subsequently studied together with a target in a 2nd study phase (e.g., "rope-sailing", "sunflower-yellow"). In the test phase, an extralist category cue (e.g., "sports", "color") was presented, and participants were instructed to recall an item from the study list that was a member of the category (e.g., "sailing", "yellow"). The experiments showed that previous study of the paired-associate word (e.g., "rope") enhanced category cued recall even though this word was not presented at test. This experimental demonstration of covert cuing has important implications for the effectiveness of the independent cue technique. (Contains 1 table and 1 footnote.)

Retrieval practice with particular items from memory can impair the recall of related items on a later memory test. This retrieval-induced forgetting effect has been ascribed to inhibitory processes (M. C. Anderson & B. A. Spellman, 1995). A critical finding that distinguishes inhibitory from interference explanations is that forgetting is found with independent (or extralist) cues. In 4 experiments, the authors tested whether the forgetting effect is cue-independent. Forgetting was investigated for both studied and unstudied semantically related items. Retrieval-induced forgetting was not found using item-specific independent cues for either studied or unstudied items. However, forgetting was found for both item types when studied categories were used as cues. These results are not in line with a general inhibitory account, because this account predicts retrieval-induced forgetting with independent cues. Interference and context-specific inhibition are discussed as possible explanations for the data.

Research presented concerns computer-assisted training for air traffic control, focusing on the relationship between training efficiency and dynamic problem selection in training programs. In the dynamic test, learner variables of mental efficiency, performance, and mental effort were used to select problems.

Distributed practice and retrieval practice are promising learning strategies to use in education. We examined the effects of these strategies in primary school vocabulary lessons. Grades 2, 3, 4, and 6 children performed exercises that were part of the regular curriculum. For the distributed practice manipulation, the children performed six exercises distributed within 1 week (short-lag repetition) or across 2 weeks (long-lag repetition). For the repetition type manipulation, children copied a part of the description of a word (restudy) or recalled the description (retrieval practice). At the end of each week, the children received a cued-recall vocabulary test. After 1 to 11 weeks they received a multiple-choice vocabulary test. Both on the cued-recall test and on the multiple-choice test no benefits of long-lag repetition and retrieval practice were found. These results put into question the practical value of long-lag repetition and retrieval practice in real-life primary school vocabulary lessons.Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retrieving information from memory can lead to forgetting of other, related information. The inhibition account of this retrieval-induced forgetting effect predicts that this form of forgetting occurs when competition arises between the practiced information and the related information, leading to inhibition of the related information. In the standard retrieval practice paradigm, a retrieval practice task is used in which participants retrieve the items based on a category-plus-stem cue (e.g., FRUIT-or___). In the current experiment, participants instead generated the target based on a cue in which the first 2 letters of the target were transposed (e.g., FRUIT-roange). This noncompetitive task also induced forgetting of unpracticed items from practiced categories. This finding is inconsistent with the inhibition account, which asserts that the forgetting effect depends on competitive retrieval. We argue that interference-based accounts of forgetting and the context-based account of retrieval-induced forgetting can account for this result. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The testing effect refers to the finding that retrieval practice leads to better long-term retention than additional study of course material. In the present study, we examined whether this finding generalizes to primary school vocabulary learning. We also manipulated the word learning context. Children were introduced to 20 words by listening to a story in which novel words were embedded (story condition) or by listening to isolated words (word pairs condition). The children practised the meaning of 10 words by retrieval practice and 10 words by restudy. After 1 week, they completed a cued recall test and a multiple choice test. Words learned by retrieval practice were recalled better than words learned by additional study, but there was no difference in recognition. Furthermore, the children in the word pairs condition outperformed the children in the story condition. These results show that retrieval practice may improve vocabulary learning in children. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In eyewitness situations, questioning can be seen as a form of retrieval practice that may have detrimental effects on eyewitness memory. Memory research has demonstrated that retrieval practice may not only enhance memory for practiced information but also induce forgetting of related information. The present study examined the effect of retrieval practice on forgetting in eyewitness memory. First, we investigated whether asking questions about particular offender characteristics can induce forgetting of other offender characteristics. Second, we examined whether this forgetting effect is limited to information from the practiced offender or may also influence memory for characteristics of others present in the crime scene. Third, we studied whether forgetting of eyewitness information occurs in the absence of output interference effects. We found that questioning induced forgetting of offender characteristics. Moreover, the forgetting effect was not limited to information about the practiced offender. Finally, forgetting was found even when output order was experimentally controlled. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]