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Despite the wealth of data available for mountain phylogeography, local-scale studies focused on narrow endemic species remain rare. Yet, knowledge of the genetic structure of such species biogeographically linked to a restricted area is of particular importance to understand the history of the local flora and its diversity patterns. Here, we aim to contribute to the phylogeographical overview of the Western Carpathians with a genetic study of Saxifraga wahlenbergii, one of the most characteristic endemic species of this region. We sampled populations from all discrete parts of the species' distribution range to apply sequencing of selected non-coding cpDNA and nuclear ribosomal DNA (ITS) regions, as well as Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) fingerprinting. First, while ITS sequences showed weak diversification, the genetic structure based on cpDNA sequences revealed two well-differentiated groups of haplotypes. One of them is restricted to the main center of the distribution range in the Tatra Mountains (Mts), while the second group included a series of closely related haplotypes, which in most cases were unique for particular isolated groups of populations in peripheral mountain ranges and in the south-eastern part of the Tatra Mts. AFLP fingerprinting also revealed a pattern of divergence among populations, while only partly corroborating the division observed in cpDNA. Taking into account all the data, the pattern of genetic structure, supported by the high levels of unique genetic markers in populations, may reflect the historical isolation of populations in several local refugia during the last glacial period. Not only the center of the range in the Tatra Mts , but also other, neighboring massifs (Malá Fatra, Nízke Tatry, Chočské vrchy, Muránska planina), where populations are characterized by separate plastid DNA haplotypes, could have acted as separate refugia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Shifts in climate along elevation gradients structure mycobiont–photobiont associations in lichens. We obtained mycobiont (lecanoroid Lecanoraceae) and photobiont (Trebouxia alga) DNA sequences from 89 lichen thalli collected in Bolivia from a ca. 4,700 m elevation gradient encompassing diverse natural communities and environmental conditions. The molecular dataset included six mycobiont loci (ITS, nrLSU, mtSSU, RPB1 , RPB2 , and MCM7) and two photobiont loci (ITS, rbc L); we designed new primers to amplify Lecanoraceae RPB1 and RPB2 with a nested PCR approach. Mycobionts belonged to Lecanora s.lat., Bryonora , Myriolecis , Protoparmeliopsis , the " Lecanora " polytropa group, and the " L." saligna group. All of these clades except for Lecanora s.lat. occurred only at high elevation. No single species of Lecanoraceae was present along the entire elevation gradient, and individual clades were restricted to a subset of the gradient. Most Lecanoraceae samples represent species which have not previously been sequenced. Trebouxia clade C, which has not previously been recorded in association with species of Lecanoraceae, predominates at low- to mid-elevation sites. Photobionts from Trebouxia clade I occur at the upper extent of mid-elevation forest and at some open, high-elevation sites, while Trebouxia clades A and S dominate open habitats at high elevation. We did not find Trebouxia clade D. Several putative new species were found in Trebouxia clades A, C, and I. These included one putative species in clade A associated with Myriolecis species growing on limestone at high elevation and a novel lineage sister to the rest of clade C associated with Lecanora on bark in low-elevation grassland. Three different kinds of photobiont switching were observed, with certain mycobiont species associating with Trebouxia from different major clades, species within a major clade, or haplotypes within a species. Lecanoraceae mycobionts and Trebouxia photobionts exhibit species turnover along the elevation gradient, but with each partner having a different elevation threshold at which the community shifts completely. A phylogenetically defined sampling of a single diverse family of lichen-forming fungi may be sufficient to document regional patterns of Trebouxia diversity and distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Highlights • Segregation of genetic lines from N & S due to the local processes is visible. • Re-colonization of glacial areas in Central Europe from local refugia. • Eastern Europe is a contact of genetic lines from Central & Southern Europe. Abstract Phylogeographic studies of grassland plants with broad Eurasian ranges point to the importance of northern refuges in shaping genetic patterns in populations across species distribution ranges in Central Europe. Carlina acanthifolia subsp. utzka is a common inhabitant of xerothermic sites in Central European dry grasslands. The aim of this study was to test hypotheses regarding some of the main phylogeographical patterns proposed for European grassland plants, in particular the locations of glacial refugia, the re-colonization routes, and genetic affinities between Southern, Eastern and Central European populations. We analyzed the genetic diversity of Carlina acanthifolia subsp. utzka based on distribution-wide sampling of 39 populations (Southern, Central and Eastern Europe) and compiled data obtained using different markers (AFLP, cpDNA, ETS region). The results for AFLP and the ETS region split the populations into two groups: from Central and Eastern Europe with the northern part of the Balkan Peninsula; and from its southern part. The segregation visible both in the distribution of particular haplotypes and in the variation level of the southern group of populations (AFLP) points to local processes that were taking place independently in the northern and the southern parts of the range. Populations from the southern part of the range have likely served as the core of the Central European part during their colonization, while re-colonization of glacial areas in Central Europe took place from local refugia in the central and western parts of Eastern Europe. The southern areas did not participate in this process. The observed variation of the frequency of haplotypes indicates that Eastern Europe populations dominant in the northern Balkan Peninsula got in contact with those from Central Europe. On the other hand, the presence of a separate line of haplotypes and ribotypes in populations from the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula indicates the absence of continuous connectivity of these areas with disjunct areas in Central Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Viola uliginosa (bog violet) is a declining species throughout its range due to - mostly anthropogenic - drying out of the wet habitats it occupies. Using AFLP markers, we aimed to estimate the genetic diversity in Polish populations, that may give an insight into the situation of plant populations facing rapid loss of natural habitats. Bog violet from several dispersed Polish populations is generally characterized by very low genetic diversity ( HT = 0.048), even lower than several other endangered violets; therefore, we suggest that it should preserve at least EN rank in the red lists/red data books. The mean gene diversity within all populations ( HS) was much lower than gene diversity ( GST) between populations (0.020 versus 0.583, respectively) which supports the prevalence of clonal propagation of the species (mainly by stolons) but may also point to some significance of autogamy in cleisto- and chasmogamous flowers. A high FST value and the Mantel test for all populations revealed significant isolation by distance. Geographically neighboring pairs of populations formed genetic clusters supported by all (in the case of two closest populations) or most statistical analyses applied. Special attention should be paid to the locus classicus of the species in Rząska, consisting of a small number of individuals, forming a genetically distinct group, revealing very low gene diversity ( Hj = 0.009) and the longest genetic distance to the remaining populations. Our results can contribute to planning future protection measures for the species at this and other locations. Genetic structure of the studied populations suggests local affinities of populations but does not generally support hypothesized recent continuity of V. uliginosa range along the river valleys of southern Poland; this view may, however, be altered with widening of the scope of studied populations and chosen molecular markers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AFLPs were used to analyze the genetic variability of Serratula lycopifolia, one of the rarest plant species in Central and Western Europe, in six populations from the Wyżyna Małopolska upland (Poland), White Carpathian Mts (Slovakia and Czech Republic) and Podolian Upland (Ukraine). he results of polymorphism, PCoA and neighbor-net analyzes showed similar and relatively low genetic variation and high genetic similarity of individuals within each Polish population but there were differences between those populations. he population from Slovakia also showed comparatively high intrapopulation homogeneity and evident genetic separation from the other studied populations. Intrapopulation genetic variation was higher in the Czech and Ukrainian populations. However, AMOVA analyses revealed no significant differentiation at population and regional levels. he estimated low genetic diversity in the populations from Poland and Slovakia may be due to genetic processes such as genetic drift and inbreeding in local populations resulting from their low abundance, and does not seem characteristic of the species as a whole. These genetic analyzes make it clear that the Polish and Slovakian populations need support programmes to maintain their genetic variation. Measures should focus on increasing the number of individuals in the populations and on protecting their habitat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A phylogeographical analysis of Ranunculus platanifolius, a typical European subalpine tall-herb species, indicates the existence of two main genetic lineages based on amplified fragment length polymorphism ( AFLP) markers. One group comprises populations from the Balkan Peninsula and the south-eastern Carpathians and the other includes the remaining part of the range of the species, encompassing the western Carpathians, Sudetes, Alps, Pyrenees and Scandinavia. The main phylogeographical break observed in this species runs across the Carpathians and separates the main parts of this range (western and south-eastern Carpathians), supporting a distinct glacial history of populations in these areas. The high genetic similarity of the Balkan Peninsula and south-eastern Carpathian populations could indicate a common glacial refugium for these contemporarily isolated areas of species distribution. The western and northern part of the species range displays an additional weak differentiation into regional phylogeographical groups, which could have been shaped by isolation in glacial refugia or even by a postglacial isolation. The observed weak phylogeographical structure could also be linked with ecological requirements, allowing survival along streams in relatively low, forested mountain ranges. © 2013 The Linnean Society of London [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Convention on Biological Diversity ( CBD) aims at the conservation of all three levels of biodiversity, that is, ecosystems, species and genes. Genetic diversity represents evolutionary potential and is important for ecosystem functioning. Unfortunately, genetic diversity in natural populations is hardly considered in conservation strategies because it is difficult to measure and has been hypothesised to co-vary with species richness. This means that species richness is taken as a surrogate of genetic diversity in conservation planning, though their relationship has not been properly evaluated. We tested whether the genetic and species levels of biodiversity co-vary, using a large-scale and multi-species approach. We chose the high-mountain flora of the Alps and the Carpathians as study systems and demonstrate that species richness and genetic diversity are not correlated. Species richness thus cannot act as a surrogate for genetic diversity. Our results have important consequences for implementing the CBD when designing conservation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A good knowledge of species delimitation is crucial for the biodiversity protection and the conservation of wild species. We studied the efficiency of AFLP markers and morphological characters to assist species determination for Melica ciliata L. and M. transsilvanica Schur within European range of distribution, including isolated and range-limit populations of "M. ciliata" (i.e. M. cf. ciliata) from the Polish Sudetes, where it is regarded as critically endangered. AFLP markers were found to be more effective then morphological characters (more or less continuous) in distinguishing the both studied species. AMOVA revealed very low genetic diversity within populations and high differentiation among populations of M. ciliata and M. transsilvanica (FST = 0.89 and 0.95, respectively). The species-diagnostic AFLP markers of M. transsilvanica shared with "M. ciliata" from the Sudetes were detected. On the other hand, no species-diagnostic genetic markers of M. ciliata or hybrid-diagnostic markers of M. x thuringiaca were found within "M. ciliata". PCoA and NJ showed an overlapping genetic diversity of "M. ciliata" and M. transsilvanica. Hierarchical AMOVA supported the absence of a significant genotypic distinction between "M. ciliata" and M. transsilvanica. ANOVA showed that the length ratio of lower to upper glumes was the best morphological character to discriminate between M. ciliata and M. transsilvanica. Combined morphological and genetic data show that M. ciliata is not currently present in Poland as its putative Polish populations represent M. transsilvanica. A significant decrease in genetic varia bility that could influence viability was not observed the in Sudetian populations of M. transsilvanica. However, the population size changes significantly as a result of plant succession. Correction of the northern limit of the continuous distribution of M. ciliata L. in Central Europe is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim To test the influence of various species traits, elevation and phylogeographical history on the genetic diversity of high-mountain plants in the Alps and Carpathians. Location The regular sampling grid comprised the whole range of the European Alps and the Carpathians. Methods Twenty-two high-mountain plant species were exhaustively sampled and their genetic diversity was assessed with amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). ANOVAs were used to check for relationships between species traits and species genetic diversity, and to test whether genetic diversity was influenced by altitude and phylogeographical history (i.e. Alps versus Carpathians). Results In both mountain systems, species dispersed and pollinated by wind showed higher genetic diversity than species with self or insect pollination, and with animal- or gravity-dispersed seeds. Only in the Alps did altitudinal range size affect species genetic diversity significantly: species with narrow altitudinal ranges in the highest vegetation belts had significantly higher genetic diversity than those expanding over wide altitudinal ranges. Genetic diversity was species specific and significantly higher in the Alps than in the Carpathians, but it was not influenced by elevation. Main conclusions Wind pollination and wind dispersal seem to foster high genetic diversity. However, species traits are often associated and their effects on genetic diversity cannot be clearly disentangled. As genetic diversity is species specific, comparisons across species need to be interpreted with care. Genetic diversity was generally lower in the Carpathians than in the Alps, due to higher topographical isolation of alpine habitats in the Carpathians and this mountain massif's divergent phylogeographical history. Elevation did not influence genetic diversity, challenging the long-held view of decreasing genetic diversity with increasing elevation in mountain plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cochlearia polonica, a narrow endemic of southern Poland, is one of the rarest and most endangered species of the European flora. All natural populations are extinct and the species has survived in only one transplanted population derived from 14 original individuals. Using AFLPs, the genetic variation and spatial structure of this population were analysed approximately 30 years after transplantation. The incidence of polymorphic AFLP bands (30.46%) is low compared with data from a natural population of another Cochlearia species, C. tatrae. Principal co-ordinates and spatial autocorrelation analyses demonstrated the presence of significant genetic structure. It is recommended that conservation efforts on C. polonica should preserve the complete population area, because local extinctions may lead to a loss of genetic information. The presence of genetic structure should also be taken into account during the sampling of material (plants or seeds) for ex situ conservation measures. © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2007, 155, 527–532. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]