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Although catch shares may be an effective tool to address overcapitalization in fisheries, there is increasing evidence that the costs and benefits of these programs may not be equitably allocated geographically or across generations. This paper examines the spatial and temporal distributional outcomes of 20 years of the Pacific halibut, Hippoglossus stenolepis, and sablefish, Anoplopoma fimbria, Individual Fishing Quota (IFQ) Program, which was implemented with many provisions explicitly intended to mitigate adverse effects on coastal communities, crew-members, small vessels, and new entrants. Utilizing performance metrics to track distributional objectives over time, we show that, similarly to other catch share programs, the IFQ Program created winners and losers with inter-generational and inter-community inequities in access and opportunities, an effect that may have been exacerbated by regulatory exemptions and loopholes as well as differentiated transportation access in rural Alaska. Nevertheless, some programmatic provisions may have effectively curtailed a complete redistribution of QS (quota shares) within the fleet. Furthermore, consolidation coupled with prolonged fishing seasons and product changes have provided for improvements in some conditions of employment for remaining crew members. We also provide lessons learned for the development and review of catch share programs in the future with respect to defining measureable objectives and establishing mechanisms for data acquisition at the outset. Data collections implemented at the start of a program can provide information to track performance against meaningful baselines. Although potentially time intensive in the development and implementation periods, long-standing data collections may ultimately be easier from the standpoint of the respondents and administrators than ones implemented after a program is in place., Introduction Catch shares are a management tool that have been applied across the world to address overcapitalization in fisheries (Squires et al., 1995; Arnason, 1996; Wilen, 2000). However, there is [...]

Both the ecological and social dimensions of fisheries are being affected by climate change. As a result, policymakers, managers, scientists and fishing communities are seeking guidance on how to holistically build resilience to climate change. Numerous studies have highlighted key attributes of resilience in fisheries, yet concrete examples that explicitly link these attributes to social‐ecological outcomes are lacking. To better understand climate resilience, we assembled 18 case studies spanning ecological, socio‐economic, governance and geographic contexts. Using a novel framework for evaluating 38 resilience attributes, the case studies were systematically assessed to understand how attributes enable or inhibit resilience to a given climate stressor. We found population abundance, learning capacity, and responsive governance were the most important attributes for conferring resilience, with ecosystem connectivity, place attachment, and accountable governance scoring the strongest across the climate‐resilient fisheries. We used these responses to develop an attribute typology that describes robust sources of resilience, actionable priority attributes and attributes that are case specific or require research. We identified five fishery archetypes to guide stakeholders as they set long‐term goals and prioritize actions to improve resilience. Lastly, we found evidence for two pathways to resilience: (1) building ecological assets and strengthening communities, which we observed in rural and small‐scale fisheries, and (2) building economic assets and improving effective governance, which was demonstrated in urban and wealthy fisheries. Our synthesis presents a novel framework that can be directly applied to identify approaches, pathways and actionable levers for improving climate resilience in fishery systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interdisciplinary science and environmental management involve bringing together data and expertise at multiple spatial scales. The most challenging part of merging scales is aligning the scale of inquiry with the research application. Through the Louisiana case study relating wetland loss and commercial fishing, we examine how the nature and strength of the relationship changes depending on the scale of investigation. Resulting management implications also vary because of tradeoffs in choosing the scale of inquiry. State-level fisheries managers may miss effects of wetland loss in fishing communities because they are looking at aggregate data. Scientific information must directly address the constituent scale, where managers can enact policy. The case study demonstrates why scalar considerations should be an explicit part of the planning process for both science and management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The incorporation of human dimensions into ecosystem-based fisheries management has largely focused on metrics of economic welfare. Yet researchers have demonstrated the variety of well-being that is derived from fisheries as well as the need for localized and collaborative scientific efforts that result in appropriately contextualized metrics. This article presents the results of a project intended to address these needs and inform the North Pacific fisheries management process with a set of indicators that are related to multiple dimensions of human well-being and links to fisheries participation. The article showcases a mechanism of applying a well-being framework and participatory methods to develop locally relevant quantitative indicators for one of the most highly engaged fishing communities in Alaska - Sitka. These indicators can be used to track how fishery shocks may reverberate through social systems and affect fishing communities. Furthermore, the discussion of the multifaceted well-being indicators presents information on local values and complex dynamics between community well-being and fisheries that are difficult to conceptualize and integrate into management decisions. Ultimately, this work can facilitate a more comprehensive incorporation of human dimensions into ecosystem-based frameworks in fisheries management, contextualizing that expansion within locally relevant narratives that engage stakeholders in resource management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Science-based natural resource management is necessary for agencies to effectively meet their goals and mandates. However, this scientific basis needs to be advanced and evolved with ecosystems experiencing unprecedented events that challenge conventional management frameworks. Effectively managing marine resources and achieving agency missions requires more than meeting independent mandates and managing individual resources as chronic stressors overwhelm conventional management frameworks. Global science organizations are transitioning to interdisciplinary and holistic research to integrate human well-being as a key outcome. The United States' principal federal agency tasked with managing coastal and marine ecosystems is the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). NOAA's vision is "healthy ecosystems, communities and economies that are resilient in the face of change". NOAA adopted the Integrated Ecosystem Assessment (IEA) approach to conduct the collaborative science necessary for ecosystem-based management. IEAs have been employed for over a decade to develop science, tools, and collaborations that address complex ecosystem challenges and make progress toward NOAA's vision. This paper demonstrates, through case studies, how scientists, stakeholders, and managers build trust and meaningful relationships from the IEA approach. These case studies further demonstrate how the IEA approach can be adapted to various geographic and management scales to build trust with partners and provide the ecosystem science, including social science, required to build resilient coastal ecosystems, communities, and economies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fishing industry of the western and central regions of the coastal Gulf of Alaska (CGoA) directly employs over 17,000 people and processes fish with a wholesale value of US$618 million annually. Pacific halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis) are a valued groundfish species because of the high quality of their flesh. In contrast, arrowtooth flounder (Atheresthes stomias) are much more abundant but of low value because their flesh degrades upon heating. Both are high trophic level predators but play different roles in the ecosystem because of differences in abundance and diet. Using an end‐to‐end ecosystem model, we evaluate the impact of alternate levels of fishing effort and large‐scale changes in oceanographic conditions upon both species, the ecosystem, and the fishing economy. Reduction of longline efforts to reduce Pacific halibut mortality led to reduction in total value of all CGoA landings but increase in value landed by sport fisheries, trawl fleets, and fish pot vessels as they exploit a greater share of available halibut, sablefish, and Pacific cod. Increased trawl effort to raise arrowtooth flounder mortality led to increase in total value of all landings but large reductions in value landed by longline, jig, fish pot, and sport fleets with greater competition for available Pacific cod, halibut, and sablefish. Oceanographic conditions that enhance pelagic food chains at the expense of benthic food chains negatively impact groundfish in general, though Pacific halibut and arrowtooth flounder are resilient to these effects because of the high importance of pelagic fish in their diets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Community vulnerability is increasingly evaluated through quantitative social indices, typically developed using secondary data sources rather than primary data collection. It is necessary to understand the validity of these indices if they will be used to inform policy and decision making. This paper presents a ground-truthing effort to validate quantitative indices that characterize the well-being of Alaska fishing communities. We utilized ethnographic data collected from 13 representative communities and a capital assets framework to ground-truth the indices, in which qualitative ranks of vulnerability were compared against quantitative indices. The majority (73.8%) of ranks were in complete or moderate agreement and the results indicate that most of the indices are representative of community vulnerability; yet some variables utilized to create the indices could be modified to better reflect realities in Alaska. Indices of commercial fishery engagement and reliance appeared to be more reliable than socio-economic indicators, particularly for smaller fishing communities. We also confirmed that the indices do not capture political, or ecological factors that affect levels of community vulnerability. We conclude that quantitative indices of community vulnerability are useful rapid assessment tools; however, they should be validated, and complemented with ethnographic data prior to their implementation as policy making and management tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine ecosystems are complex, and there is increasing recognition that environmental, ecological, and human systems are linked inextricably in coastal regions. The purpose of this article was to integrate environmental, ecological and human dimensions information important for fisheries management into a common analytical framework. We then used the framework to examine the linkages between these traditionally separate subject areas. We focused on synthesis of linkages between the Gulf of Alaska marine ecosystem and human communities of practice, defined as different fisheries sectors. Our specific objective was to document the individual directional linkages among environmental, ecological, and human dimensions variables in conceptual models, then build qualitative network models to perform simulation analyses to test how bottom-up and top-down perturbations might propagate through these linkages. We found that it is both possible and beneficial to integrate environmental, ecological, and human dimensions information important for fisheries into a common framework. First, the conceptual models allowed us to synthesize information across a broad array of data types, representing disciplines such as ecology and economics that are more commonly investigated separately, often with distinct methods. Second, the qualitative network analysis demonstrated how ecological signals can propagate to human communities, and how fishery management measures may influence the system. Third, we found that incorporating multi-species interactions changed outcomes because the merged model reversed some of the ecological and human outcomes compared with single species analyses. Overall, we demonstrated the value of linking information from the natural and social sciences to better understand complex social-ecological systems, and the value of incorporating ecosystem-level processes into a traditionally single species management framework. We advocate for conceptual and qualitative network modelling as efficient foundational steps to inform ecosystem-based fisheries management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Risk assessments quantify the probability of undesirable events along with their consequences. They are used to prioritize management interventions and assess tradeoffs, serving as an essential component of ecosystem-based management (EBM). A central objective of most risk assessments for conservation and management is to characterize uncertainty and impacts associated with one or more pressures of interest. Risk assessments have been used in marine resource management to help evaluate the risk of environmental, ecological, and anthropogenic pressures on species or habitats including for data-poor fisheries management (e.g., toxicity, probability of extinction, habitat alteration impacts). Traditionally, marine risk assessments focused on singular pressure-response relationships, but recent advancements have included use of risk assessments in an EBM context, providing a method for evaluating the cumulative impacts of multiple pressures on multiple ecosystem components. Here, we describe a conceptual framework for ecosystem risk assessment (ERA), highlighting its role in operationalizing EBM, with specific attention to ocean management considerations. This framework builds on the ecotoxicological and conservation literature on risk assessment and includes recent advances that focus on risks posed by fishing to marine ecosystems. We review how examples of ERAs from the United States fit into this framework, explore the variety of analytical approaches that have been used to conduct ERAs, and assess the challenges and data gaps that remain. This review discusses future prospects for ERAs as EBM decision-support tools, their expanded role in integrated ecosystem assessments, and the development of next-generation risk assessments for coupled natural-human systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Access to most fisheries on the US West Coast was essentially open prior to the mid-1970s when state licenses were first limited for salmon fisheries. Subsequently, licenses to most fisheries on the West Coast have been limited, and the numbers of licenses in many fisheries have been reduced with buy-back programs. More recently, catch share programs, which dedicate exclusive shares of catch to individuals or cooperatives, have been introduced in several sectors of the federally managed Pacific groundfish fishery. As access to fisheries has become more restricted, revenue diversification of West Coast fishing vessels has generally declined. This is a source of concern since diversification has been shown to reduce year-to-year variation in revenue and hence financial risk. However, catch share programs may create more security and stability in vessels' landings, which may offset effects of less diversification. Nevertheless, there may be a tradeoff between the efficiency gains enabled by restricting access and risk-reduction benefits associated with greater diversification. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Over recent years, fisheries managers have been going through a paradigm shift to prioritize ecosystem-based management. With this comes an increasing need to better understand the impacts of fisheries management decisions on the social well-being and sustainability of fishing communities. This article summarizes research aimed at using secondary data to develop socioeconomic and fisheries involvement indices to measure objective fishing community well-being in Alaska. Data from more than 300 communities in Alaska were used to create a database of socioeconomic and fisheries involvement indices of objective well-being and adaptability for Alaska communities dependent on marine resources. Each index was developed using a principal components factor analysis to assess the relative position of each community compared to all other communities in Alaska. We find that creating performance measures, such as the indices presented here, provides a useful way to track the status of socioeconomic conditions and fisheries involvement by communities over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alaska's communities are experiencing impacts from unprecedented climate-related changes in the harvests of natural resources. Residents of rural Alaska are reporting heretofore unseen changes in the geographic distribution and abundance of marine resources, increases in the frequency and ferocity of storm surges in the Bering Sea, changes in the distribution and thickness of sea ice, and increases in river and coastal erosion. When combined with ongoing socio-economic change, climate, weather, and changes in the biophysical system interact in a complex web of feedbacks and interactions that make life in rural Alaska challenging. We present a framework of indicators to assess three basic constituents of community vulnerability: exposure to the bio-physical effects of climate change, dependence on resources that will be affected by climate change, and a community's adaptive capacity to offset negative impacts of climate change. We conduct three principal components analyses, one for each vulnerability constituent, for 315 Alaska communities to assess each community's overall vulnerability to climate change. This research can be used to inform communities about the ways in which their communities are vulnerable to climate change and help develop adaptation strategies. While this study focuses on Alaska communities, the framework is easily adaptable to other regions with different risk factors and sensitivities to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article describes the metrics of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries Division, aimed at characterizing changes in the socioeconomic health of fisheries and well-being of fishing communities in the U.S. It discusses fishing effort indicators which include the number of entities that hold shares, number of active vessels, season length, number of trips and time spent at sea. Community vulnerability and resiliency indicators are also discussed.

An integrated ecosystem assessment (IEA) is a framework that organizes science to aid in the transition from traditional single-species management towards ecosystem-based management. Within the Gulf of Alaska, we started a small-scale IEA framework with active engagement of local stakeholders in the fishing community of Sitka. The initial step of this framework was the development of conceptual models. Here, we present a co-produced conceptual model using data gathered from participatory focus groups and a literature review of ecosystem attributes driving the abundance of sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria). We then assembled a qualitative network model (QNM), a mathematical representation of a conceptual system in which perturbations of individual components can be assessed for their qualitative effect. Simulations were conducted to test different biophysical scenarios, while evaluating tradeoffs across ecological and human dimension components. In contrast to large adult sablefish, juvenile and small adults responded similarly to most biophysical conditions. In general, human dimension components responded negatively to the tested scenarios. These results highlight the potential need for management strategies that differentiate between small and large adults, particularly if current sablefish stock assessment trends persist, such as the lack of older fish contributing to spawning biomass and uncertainties in estimates of year-class strength. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]