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The Cathedral of Florence is one of the largest churches in the world and is known for one of the most famous domes ever, which characterizes the skyline of the city. The dimensions of the building mean that the dimensions of the roof are equally large and so are the wooden structures that support it. The roof of the cathedral is organized on two levels: the roof of the large central nave and, at a lower level, those of the two lateral naves. The purpose of this paper is the identification of the wood species of which the structures are made. The sampling method of the 408 samples that have been identified is then described, the methods followed to reach a reliable identification and finally the results. The timbers most represented among the structural elements are those of silver fir, chestnut and elm. Other timbers are then found in the other components less directly linked to the main structural parts that make up the trusses. The paper then discusses the technological implications on the use of those woods within the wooden covering structures of the cathedral and the main sources of timber that the builders had available, in particular the Casentino forests that the Municipality of Florence had donated to the structure that managed the construction of the cathedral (Opera di Santa Maria del Fiore—OPA). OPA still exists today and is responsible for the maintenance of the cathedral and other annexed buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work is aimed at showing the results of a work of identification of the wood species used for the construction of the mechanical components of a historic pipe organ. The instrument was built in 1895 in Pistoia (Tuscany, Italy) for a church of a small municipality in the north-west of Tuscany, the summer residence of a family of ancient European nobility; it is therefore a large monumental organ, still original. During the restoration operations, and consequently on the disassembly, it was possible to carry out a complete sampling of the wooden components that are normally not directly accessible. The sampling was performed under the supervision of the restorer, through the cut and drawing of very small samples and with minimally invasive criteria. The identification was performed by observing thin sections, manually cut, by means of an optical microscope. The results of the identification carried out on the 25 samples are reported. The identified timbers are not very numerous and the most represented one is poplar (Populus sp.). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The viscoelastic properties of waterlogged wood (WLW) were investigated via dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) at room temperature and under water saturated conditions, aiming at the investigation of the relationships between viscoelasticity and chemical composition. Different softwoods (SWs) and hardwoods (HWs) from several archaeological sites were sampled, which had different levels of decay (from highly-decayed to little changed). The analytical methods included lignin and holocellulose determination by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, moisture content (MC), basic density (BD), micromorphological observations, and the DMA was performed in three-point bending and submersion mode. Both HWs and SWs showed an exponential decrease of both storage modulus (E′) and loss modulus (E″), which are related to the amount of crystalline and paracrystalline cellulose left in the cell wall, respectively. The ratio E″/E′ (tanδ) varied with the frequency in different ways depending on the preservation state of the samples. Less decayed material had a higher tanδ than the fresh reference wood and lower (or similar) tanδ in the case of highly decayed samples. Accordingly, the long-term behaviour under a certain sustained load of WLW is decay dependent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper deals with the identification of the wood species used for the production of wooden tools in an ancient plant for manual paper production. After a quick historic contextualisation of the importance of the paper industry developed in the Pescia district (Tuscany, Italy), this paper describes the process of manual paper production and the different tools, mostly wooden, used by the workers. The historic plant "Le Carte" still preserves these tools, which were sampled to scientifically identify the timber species. Samples were drawn from any wooden component of the equipment involved in the whole manual paper making process. Sampling was performed on any portion of the artefact where the species of origin was not clearly and reliably identifiable by eye, or aided by a manual magnifying lens. In total, 1223 identifications were performed and 25 timber types observed. Most of timber identifications regard the large mould collection (434 artefacts, 1154 identifications, 17 timbers), while the equipment included fewer artefacts, identifications and timbers. Obtained results are then technologically discussed, considering the features of each species and the specific needs of each final use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Work on thermal pools at Poggetti Vecchi in Grosseto, Italy, exposed an up to 3-meter-thick succession of seven sedimentary units. Unit 2 in the lower portion of the succession contained vertebrate bones, mostly of the straight-tusked elephant, Palaeoloxodon antiquus, commingled with stone, bone, and wooden tools. Thermal carbonates overlying Unit 2 are radiometrically dated to the latter part of the middle Pleistocene. This time span indicates that early Neanderthals produced the human artifacts from Poggetti Vecchi. The elephant bones belong to seven individuals of different ages. Sedimentary facies analysis and paleoecological evidence suggest a narrow lacustrine-palustrine embayment affected by water-level fluctuations and, at times, by hydrothermal water. Cyclic lake-level variations were predominantly forced by the rapid climatic fluctuations that occurred at Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 6–7 transition and throughout the MIS 6. Possibly an abrupt, intense, and protracted cold episode during the onset of MIS 6 led to the sudden death of the elephants, which formed an unexpected food resource for the humans of the area. The Poggetti Vecchi site adds new information on the behavioral plasticity and food procurement strategies that early Neanderthals were able to develop in Italy during the middle to the late Pleistocene transition. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper deals with the scientific identification of species utilized for the production of wooden sculptures collected into an exhibition of statues dated back to XVII - XVIII centuries, coming from the city of Asti and the surrounding region (Northwest Italy). Problems in sample drawing are analyzed, together with the results, described per period and author on the basis of the identified species. Almost all the statues were made of poplar or willow wood, except two, made of walnut wood. This paper also describes the principal technological characteristics of identified woods, considering specifically their utilization for carving. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]