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Multispectral modelling of 114 tropical Andean lakes in Southern Ecuador was implemented using observations of the maximum depth (Zmax). Five machine learning methods (MLMs), namely the multiple linear regression model (MLRM), generalised additive model (GAM), generalised linear model (GLM), multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS), and random forest (RF), were applied on a LANDSAT 8 mosaic. Within the scope of a split-sample (SS) evaluation test, for each of the MLMs, a single model was developed for 70% (i.e., 80) of the studied lakes. Statistical measures and graphical inspection were used in the evaluation tests. An analysis of the absolute value of the model residuals (|res|) revealed that the MARS method outperformed the other MLMs. Nevertheless, a |res| > 10 m was observed for approximately 10% of the lakes. The worst predictions were produced by the GLM. These findings were confirmed in the model validation phase (SS test). With the exception of the GLM, the MLMs correctly predicted whether a lake was shallow or deep in more than 80% of the cases. In a more stringent multi-site (MS) test, the performance of the five Zmax models was assessed in predicting the bathymetry of 11,636 pixels that were not considered when fitting the models. Once more, MARS outperformed the other MLMs. However, a |res| > 10 m for 20% of the pixels was observed. Nevertheless, the quality of the predictions may still be regarded as acceptable for management purposes. Promising multispectral bathymetric predictions could be obtained, even with only a limited number of observations. The evaluation tests used in this pioneering study could be easily replicated elsewhere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we explore the utility of stable isotopes of water (δ2H and δ18O) as integrative proxies for evaporative condition in high-mountain tropical lakes using a set of small Ecuadorian lakes in the Cajas National Park. Specifically, we (1) characterize the variability of stable water isotopic composition across several lakes of varying size and depth and (2) determine the evaporation as a fraction of inflow using stable isotopes of water for these lakes. We have used the Hydrocalculator tool for estimation of the evaporation to inflow (E/I) ratio. Results indicated that larger lakes have lower seasonal variability in isotopic composition across their depth compared with the smaller lakes. Further, there was clear seasonal variation across the monthly E/I ratios estimated in several lakes, indicating that evaporation likely plays some (albeit limited) role in the water level variability experienced within a year. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Very little is known on high mountain tropical lakes of South America. Thus, the main motivation of this research was obtaining base bathymetric data of 119 tropical lakes of the Cajas National Park (CNP), Ecuador, that could be used in future geomorphological studies. Eleven interpolation methods were applied with the intention of selecting the best one for processing the scattered observations that were collected with a low-cost fishing echo-sounder. A split-sample (SS) test was used and repeated several times considering different proportions of available observations, selected randomly, for training of the interpolation methods and accuracy evaluation of the respective products. This accuracy was assessed through the use of empirical exceedance probability distributions of the mean absolute error (MAE). A single best interpolation method could not be identified. Instead, the study suggested six better-performing methods, including the complex methods Kriging (ordinary), minimum curvature (spline), multiquadric, and TIN with linear interpolation but also the much simpler methods natural neighbour and nearest neighbour. A sensitivity analysis (SA), considering several data error magnitudes, confirmed this. This advocated that sophisticated interpolation methods do not always produce the best products as geomorphological characteristics of the study site(s) together with observation data characteristics are likely to play important roles in their performance. As such, this type of assessment should be carried out in any terrestrial mapping of bathymetry that is based on the interpolation of scattered observations. Upon the analysis of the relative hypsometric curves of the 119 study lakes, they were classified into three average form categories: convex, concave, and mixed. The separated accuracy analysis of these three groups of lakes did not help in identifying a single best method. Finally, the interpolated bathymetries of 114 of the study lakes were incorporated into the best DEM of the study site by equalising their elevation reference systems. It is believed that the resulting enhanced DEM could be a very useful tool for a more appropriate management of these very beautiful but fragile high mountain tropical lakes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tropical lakes harbour high levels of biodiversity, but the temporal and spatial variability of biological communities are still inadequately characterised, making it difficult to predict the impact of accelerated rates of environmental change in these regions. Our goal was to identify the spatiotemporal dynamics of the planktic diatom community in the Cajas Massif in the tropical Andes.We analysed seasonal diatom and environmental data over a period of 1 year from 10 lakes located in geologically distinct basins and modelled community–environment relationships using multivariate ordination and variation partitioning techniques. Generalised additive models with a full‐subset information theoretic approach also were used to determine which environmental variables explain single‐species abundance.Although the lakes are monomictic and thus have variable thermal structure across the year, seasonal variability of water chemistry conditions was negligible, and seasonal differences in diatom community composition were small. Across space, diatom community composition was correlated primarily with ionic content (divalent cations and alkalinity), related to bedrock composition, and secondly with lake thermal structure and productivity. The ionic gradient overrode the effect of the thermal structure–productivity gradient at the diatom community level, whereas individual diatom species responded more sensitively to variables related to in‐lake and catchment productivity, including chlorophyll‐a and iron, and the proportion of wetlands in the catchment.Our results indicate that the spatiotemporal variability of Cajas lakes and their diatom communities is the result of multiple intertwined environmental factors. The emergence of the ionic and thermal structure–productivity gradients in a rather small tropical lake district suggests segregation of ecological niches for diatoms that also may be important in other high‐elevation lake regions. Future studies that track tropical Andean lakes under natural and anthropogenically mediated change, both in contemporary times and in palaeoenvironmental reconstructions, would benefit from the modelling approach (community and species levels) developed here. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Water chemistry and its ecological implications have been extensively investigated in temperate high‐mountain lakes because of their role as sentinels of global change. However, few studies have considered the drivers of water chemistry in tropical mountain lakes underlain by volcanic bedrock. A survey of 165 páramo lakes in the Cajas Massif of the Southern Ecuador Andes identified 4 independent chemical variation gradients, primarily characterized by divalent cations (hardness), organic carbon, silica, and iron levels. Hardness and silica factors showed contrasting relationships with parent rock type and age, vegetation, aquatic ecosystems in the watershed, and lake and watershed size. Geochemical considerations suggest that divalent cations (and related alkalinity, conductivity, and pH) mainly respond to the cumulative partial dissolution of primary aluminosilicates distributed throughout the subsurface of watersheds, and silica and monovalent cations are associated with the congruent dissolution of large amounts of secondary aluminosilicates localized in former hydrothermal or tectonic spots. Dissolved organic carbon was much higher than in temperate high‐mountain lakes, causing extra acidity in water. The smaller the lakes and their watersheds, the higher the likelihood of elevated organic carbon and metals and low hardness. The watershed wetland cover favored metal levels in the lakes but not organic carbon. Phosphorus, positively, and nitrate, negatively, weakly correlated with the metal gradient, indicating common influence by in‐lake processes. Overall, the study revealed that relatively small tropical lake districts on volcanic basins can show chemical variation equivalent to that in large mountain ranges with a combination of plutonic, metamorphic, and carbonate rock areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Lakes in the Ecuadorean Andes span different altitudinal and climatic regions, from inter Andean plateau to the high‐elevation páramo, which differ in their historical evolution in the several centuries since the pioneering Humboldt expeditions. Here, we evaluate temporal and spatial patterns of change in diatom assemblages between historical (palaeolimnological) and modern times. Location: Ecuadorean Andes Methods: We compared historical (pre‐1850) and modern (2017) diatom assemblages from 21 lakes and determined the relative role of environmental (water chemistry and climate) and spatial factors (distance‐based Moran's eigenvectors maps) on both assemblages using non‐metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) with environmental fitting. In addition, we used redundancy analysis (RDA) with variance partitioning to estimate the historical (measured using downcore assemblage composition) effects on modern diatom assemblages and identified diatom species that contributed most to dissimilarity between the two times. Results: Diatom changes between the two time points were limited across the group of lakes, as indicated by the NMDS ordination. Variance partitioning indicated that modern diatom assemblages were affected by environmental and spatial effects, but with non‐significant effects of past diatom species composition. Ordination results showed that variables related to elevation and water chemistry affected both modern and historical diatom assemblages. Diatom species with the best fit on NMDS axes (i.e. >70%) were influenced by elevation and climatic variables. The most distinctive change between the two time periods was the higher relative abundance of planktic diatom species in top‐core assemblages of some lakes, but in a highly variable fashion across gradients of increased elevation and water depth. Main conclusions: Landscape palaeolimnological analyses of varied Ecuadorean Andean lakes demonstrate both environmental and spatial controls on diatom metacommunities. The multi‐faceted ecological control of the altitudinal gradient on both historic and contemporary diatom assemblages suggests species sorting and dispersal constraints operating at centennial time‐scale. Although a few individual lakes show substantive change between the 1850s and today, the majority of lakes do not, and the analysis suggests the resilience of lakes at a regional scale. We emphasize the potential of diatom palaeolimnological approaches in biogeography to test ecologically relevant hypotheses of the mechanisms driving recent limnological change in high‐elevation tropical lakes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The high‐altitude páramo grasslands of the Andes Mountains are rich in lakes that represent a source of high‐quality water for the region. Páramo grasslands are mainly used for cattle grazing. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of cattle on the trophic status of páramo lakes. In a survey of 30 lakes in Cajas National Park (NP), a semi‐quantitative estimate for cattle abundance in the vicinity of the lakes was the best predictor of the chlorophyll‐a concentrations in the lakes. Cattle abundance was also significantly related to phytoplankton community composition, being associated with a shift from chlorophytes to diatoms and dinoflagellates. Lake Culibrillas, a lake situated in the Sangay National Park (Sangay NP), a region with much more intensive cattle farming than Cajas NP exhibited a chlorophyll‐a concentration greater than twice as much as the largest concentration measured in the Cajas NP lakes, being characterized by a dinoflagellate bloom. Although chlorophyll‐a concentrations increased with cattle abundance, the concentrations in all the study lakes remained low (0.02–1.8 μg/L), indicating that extensive cattle farming does not cause severe eutrophication. The results of this study nevertheless indicate that intensification of livestock farming in páramo grasslands might result in a deterioration of water quality in the páramo lakes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The number, size, and shape of lakes are key determinants of the ecological functionality of a lake district. The lake area scaling relationships with lake number and volume enable upscaling biogeochemical processes and spatially considering organisms' metapopulation dynamics. These relationships vary regionally depending on the geomorphological context, particularly in the range of lake area <1 km2 and mountainous regions. The Cajas Massif (Southern Ecuador) holds a tropical mountain lake district with 5955 water bodies. The number of lakes deviates from a power law relationship with the lake area at both ends of the size range; similarly to the distributions found in temperate mountain ranges. The deviation of each distribution tail does not respond to the same cause. The marked relief limits the size of the largest lakes at high altitudes, whereas ponds are prompt to a complete infilling. A bathymetry survey of 202 lakes, selected across the full-size range, revealed a volume-area scaling coefficient larger than those found for other lake areas of glacial origin but softer relief. Water renewal time is not consistently proportional to the lake area due to the volume-area variation in midsize lakes. The 85% of the water surface is in lakes >104 m2 and 50% of the water resources are held in a few ones (∼10) deeper than 18 m. Therefore, midlakes and large lakes are by far more biogeochemically relevant than ponds and shallow lakes in this tropical mountain lake district. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tropical Andes has a high density of glacial lakes that are situated in the high-altitude páramo (3500-4500 m). Ecological information about such lakes is scant despite the fact that these lakes are an important source of water for drinking, irrigation and electricity generation and feed several major tributaries of the Amazon. In this study, we provide data on a survey of 31 lakes in Cajas National Park (Ecuador). Two of the lakes were monitored monthly during one year. In situ nutrient addition experiments were carried out in three of the lakes., Seasonal monitoring in two lakes revealed a thermal stratification of the water column between October and June, with a small temperature difference between epi- and hypolimnion (2-3 °C). Oxygen depletion of the hypolimnion towards the end of the stratification period indicated that no complete mixing of the water column occurred during stratification. There was no evidence of depletion of nutrients in the epilimnion or accumulation in the hypolimnion during stratification. There were also no clear seasonal changes in chlorophyll- a (Chl- a) concentration nor in phytoplankton community composition in the two lakes., Inputs of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) from the vegetated catchment resulted in high DOC concentrations (median 2.9 mg L−1) compared to temperate mountain lakes. Water transparency was relatively low, with a median extinction coefficient for photosynthetic active radiation of 0.50 m−1 and for UV-B radiation of 10.13 m−1. Although the thermocline was deep and water transparency was low, estimates of the critical depth for photosynthesis were deeper than the mean water depth in all lakes, suggesting that phytoplankton was not light limited., The phytoplankton community was dominated by chlorophytes (e.g. Oocystis), diatoms (small Cyclotella spp.) or small colonial cyanobacteria ( Aphanocapsa, Merismopedia). The zooplankton community was either dominated by large cladocerans and cyclopoid copepods, or by the calanoid copepod Boeckella occidentalis., Total concentrations of phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) were comparable to those in temperate mountain lakes (4-35 μg P L−1 and 162-758 μg N L−1) while Chl- a concentrations were in the lower range (<1 μg L−1). A large part of the total nutrient pool consists of dissolved organic N and P that appeared to have a low bioavailability to phytoplankton. The median seston N:P ratio of 44, a positive correlation between Chl- a and total P concentration, as well as nutrient addition assays carried out in three lakes all pointed to P limitation of phytoplankton. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]