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The twisted‐winged parasite genus Stylops has a history of different species concepts with varying host specificity resulting in diverse species diversity estimates in different regions of the Holarctic. The adoption of a supergeneralist species concept in Europe, proposing synonymization of all Western Palaearctic Stylops species, did not facilitate taxonomic clarity and obscured the available life‐history data in the region for decades. Lack of molecular data has allowed divergent opinions on species hypotheses and little opportunity for evaluating them in this morphologically challenging genus. To solve these discrepancies and gain novel information about host associations, we applied whole‐genome sequencing to 163 specimens, representing a significant portion of putative European species. We evaluate the existing and conflicting species hypotheses with molecular species delimitation using Species bOundry Delimitation using Astral (SODA) and use a maximum likelihood phylogeny to investigate host associations of the species. Furthermore, we evaluate the effect of a number of loci used in SODA for the number of inferred species. We find justification for synonymization of multiple species and indications of undescribed species, as well as new host–parasite relationships. We show that the number of inferred species in SODA is exceedingly and positively correlated with the number of loci used, urging for cautious application. The results of our study bring clarity to the Western Palaearctic species diversity of Stylops. Furthermore, the comprehensive molecular dataset generated in this study will be a valuable resource for future studies on Stylops and the evolution of parasites in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parasites sometimes manipulate their host's behavior to increase their own fitness by enhancing the likelihood that their offspring will reach their hosts. Bees are often parasitized by immobile adult female strepsipterans which seem to modify bees' behavior to facilitate the release of mobile first-instar larvae onto flowers. To better understand how the parasite may modify the host's behavior, we compared the foraging behavior of the sweat bee Lasioglossum apristum (Vachal, 1903) (Hymenoptera: Halictidae) between bees parasitized and unparasitized by the strepsipteran Halictoxenos borealis Kifune, 1982 (Strepsiptera: Stylopidae). Both parasitized and unparasitized bees frequently visited Hydrangea serrata (Thunb.) (Cornales: Hydrangeaceae) inflorescences, which are polleniferous but nectarless. On H. serrata inflorescences, unparasitized bees collected pollen from the anthers, but parasitized bees did not collect or eat pollen. Instead, they displayed a peculiar behavior, bending their abdomens downward and pressing them against the flower. This peculiar behavior, which was observed only in bees parasitized by a female strepsipteran in the larvae-releasing stage, may promote the release of mobile first-instar larvae onto flowers. Our observations suggest that the altered flower-visiting behavior of parasitized bees may benefit the parasite. Moreover, it suggests that strepsipteran parasites may modify their host's behavior only when the larvae reach a certain life stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parasitism is one of the most successful and ancient strategies. Due to the specialized lifestyle of parasites, they are usually affected by reductions and changes in their body plan in comparison with nonparasitic sister groups. Extreme environmental conditions may impose restraints on behavioural or physiological adaptations to a specific host and limit morphological changes associated with speciation. Such morphological homogeneity has led to the diversity of parasites being underestimated in morphological studies. By contrast, the species concept has dramatically changed in many parasitic groups during recent decades of study using DNA sequence data. Here we tested the phenomenon of cryptic species diversity in the twisted‐wing parasite family Xenidae (Strepsiptera) using nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequence data for a broad sample of Xenidae. We used three quantitative methods of species delimitation from the molecular phylogenetic data – one distance‐based (ABGD) and two tree‐based (GMYC, bPTP). We found 77–96 putative species in our data and suggested the number of Xenidae species to be more diverse than expected. We identified 67 hosts to species level and almost half of them were not previously known as hosts of Xenidae. The mean number of host species per putative species varied between 1.39 and 1.55. The constant rate in net diversification can be explained by the flexibility of this parasitic group, represented by their ability to colonize new host lineages combined with passive long‐range dispersal by hosts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The montane terrain of northern Laos is covered by species-rich subtropical evergreen oak forests, home to endemic tree genera such as Mytilaria (Hamamelidaceae), and characterised by the coexistence of several honeybee and bumblebee species. We explored community-level plant–pollinator interactions of this unique little-known ecosystem. Extensive direct observations on flowering phenology and flower-visitor assemblages of 288 plant species of 82 families were conducted in a montane forest ecosystem in Houaphanh and Xiangkhouang Provinces, Laos, from 2005 until 2016. Based mainly on the extensive flower-visit data, we assessed the pollination system of each plant species. Five sympatric honeybee species (Apis dorsata, A. laboriosa, A. cerana, A. florea and A. andreniformis) were common on various types of flowers, and floral preferences differed among species. Long-tongued bees belonging to Bombini and Anthophorini (Apidae) were species-rich and frequent visitors on various deep flowers, especially Acanthaceae, Balsaminaceae, Lamiaceae, Rubiaceae and Zingiberaceae. Character displacement by tongue length was observed among the bee species, and many relaxed species-specific and species-semispecific interactions were observed between the bees and the deep-flowers. Four plant species, in the genera Mytilaria, Chloranthus, Dioscorea and Cryptocarya, were visited exclusively by thrips. Two plant species, in the genera Lysimachia and Thladiantha, had oil-secreting flowers, which were specifically visited by the oil-collecting bees Macropis and Ctenoplectra, respectively. The dominant pollination system assessed was general insect pollination (31%), followed by long-tongued bee, small bee, honeybee, dipteran, lepidopteran, beetle, wasp, carpenter bee, thrips (e.g. the endemic genus Mytilaria), bird and hemipteran pollination. Our results suggest that the plant–pollinator interactions in the Palaeotropic montane ecosystem are characterised by significant contribution of the five honeybee species and species-rich, morphologically diverse long-tongued bees, both of which have contributed to shaping the remarkable diversity of angiosperms with deep flowers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article talks about Non-photosynthetic mycorrhizal plants that have long attracted interest mainly owing to their often-bizarre morphology dealing with investigation on the reproductive biology of mycoheterotrophs. Topics include pollination biology of Cyrtosia septentrionalis, ecological constraints favor self-pollination in mycoheterotrophs, and visitation by bees on C. septentrionalis.

Recent developments in video monitoring and time-lapse photography techniques have increased the efficiency of observing floral visitors. However, such approaches still require a great investment of time and effort to extract the relevant information from the large quantity of data produced. In an attempt to shorten this time-consuming process and make it more efficient, we have developed a system to automatically detect moving objects. This new system involves the comparison of consecutive frames to detect differences between the images and highlights those frames that are likely to contain insect visitors. The specifications of the system and the results from a pilot study using the data of the orchid species Platanthera ussuriensis are described below. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Host specialization is an important ecological characteristic of parasitic species. The identification of the parasitic strategy of the genus Stylops ( Strepsiptera; Stylopidae) is, however, ambiguous. According to the number of recognized species based on existing taxonomy, highly specialized and supergeneralistic species exist in this genus. Our research aims to clarify the concept of host specialization in the genus Stylops, in which all of the members are parasites of Andrena bees. Based on the phylogenetic analysis of the parasites (mostly females) and the mapping of hosts onto the phylogenetic tree, we tested three hypotheses of host specialization: (1) each species of the genus Stylops is associated with a single host species; (2) Stylops species are specialized to a group of closely related hosts; and (3) a single Stylops species is a generalist, parasitizing all host Andrena species in this particular region. Our evidence clearly shows a close relationship between the parasite and the host: one species of Stylops attacks one or a few host species of Andrena bees, usually from a single subgenus. Moreover, a moderate generalistic strategy is also likely in a few Stylops species. According to our results, the species diversity of the strepsipteran parasites of bees must be reconsidered. A single European species of Stylops should be divided into a higher number of valid species. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many vespid wasps visit flowers to forage nectar. These hymenopterans sometimes contribute to flower pollination. However, none of the nocturnal wasp species is a known pollinator. We collected individuals of light-attracted Provespa nocturna workers in a montane rainforest on Peninsular Malaysia: some wasps collected bore orchid pollinia on their thoraxes. Among 114 trapped individuals, four bore pollinaria and nine bore only viscidia, suggesting that pollinia had been successfully transported. Molecular barcoding of the pollinia (based on their ITS sequences) assigned the orchid to a species in Coelogyne fimbriata complex. These findings and our other analyses suggest that this nocturnal wasp contributes to pollination of an epiphytic nectarless orchid that probably releases olfactory attractants. This discovery sheds light on the importance of mutualistic relationships between the nocturnal social wasps and epiphytic orchids in Southeast Asian tropical rainforest canopies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The blissine bug Macropes obnubilus, which lives aggregately under leaf sheaths of the evergreen dwarf bamboo, is infected by the strepsipteran parasite Blissoxenos esakii. To determine the ecological properties of the bug-strepsipteran system, we conducted field surveys of natural populations of Macropes bugs and Blissoxenos parasites. The parasitism rate of strepsipterans was high throughout the year and was significantly higher in female than in male bugs. Blissoxenos adult males emerged mainly in May, and neotenic adult females released triungulins in August. The triungulins invaded host nymphs, but subsequent larval development did not occur before the bugs matured. At most, two strepsipterans could mature in a host because of spatial limitations. The mortality of triply or more parasitized bugs was significantly higher than that of singly or doubly parasitized bugs, which survived longer than uninfected ones. The heavy strepsipteran infection profoundly affected the host population by causing host reproductive failure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The generic taxonomy and host specialization of Xenidae have been understood differently by previous authors. Although the recent generic classification has implied a specialization on the level of host families or subfamilies, the hypothesis that each xenid genus is specialized to a single host genus was also previously postulated. A critical evaluation of the classification of the genera of Xenidae is provided here based on morphology in accordance with results of recent molecular phylogenetic studies. External features of the female cephalothoraces and male cephalothecae were documented in detail with different techniques. Diagnoses and descriptions are presented for all 13 delimited genera. The earliest diverging genera are usually well characterized by unique features, whereas deeply nested genera are usually characterized by combinations of characters. Three new genera are described: Sphecixenos gen. nov. , Tuberoxenos gen. nov. , and Deltoxenos gen. nov. Five previously described genera are removed from synonymy: Tachytixenos Pierce, 1911, stat. res. ; Brasixenos Kogan & Oliveira, 1966, stat. res. ; Leionotoxenos Pierce, 1909, stat. res. ; Eupathocera Pierce, 1908, stat. res. ; and Macroxenos Schultze, 1925, stat. res. One former subgenus is elevated to generic rank: Nipponoxenos Kifune & Maeta, 1975, stat. res. Monobiaphila Pierce, 1909, syn. nov. and Montezumiaphila Brèthes, 1923, syn. nov. are recognized as junior synonyms of Leionotoxenos Pierce, 1909, stat. res. Ophthalmochlus Pierce, 1908, syn. nov. , Homilops Pierce, 1908, syn. nov. , Sceliphronechthrus Pierce, 1909, syn. nov. , and Ophthalmochlus (Isodontiphila) Pierce, 1919, syn. nov. are recognized as junior synonyms of Eupathocera Pierce, 1908, stat. res. A preliminary checklist of 119 described species of Xenidae with information on their hosts and distribution is provided. The following 14 species are recognized as valid and restituted from synonymy: Tachytixenosindicus Pierce, 1911, stat. res. ; Brasixenosacinctus Kogan & Oliveira, 1966, stat. res. ; Brasixenosaraujoi (Oliveira & Kogan, 1962), stat. res. ; Brasixenosbahiensis Kogan & Oliveira, 1966, stat. res. ; Brasixenosbrasiliensis Kogan & Oliveira, 1966, stat. res. ; Brasixenosfluminensis Kogan & Oliveria, 1966, stat. res. ; Brasixenosmyrapetrus Trois, 1988, stat. res. ; Brasixenoszikani Kogan & Oliveira, 1966, stat. res. ; Leionotoxenoshookeri Pierce, 1909, stat. res. ; Leionotoxenosjonesi Pierce, 1909, stat. res. ; Leionotoxenoslouisianae Pierce, 1909, stat. res. ; Eupathoceraluctuosae Pierce, 1911, stat. res. ; Eupathoceralugubris Pierce, 1909, stat. res. ; Macroxenospiercei Schultze, 1925, stat. res. New generic combinations are proposed for 51 species: Leionotoxenosarvensidis (Pierce, 1911), comb. nov. ; Leionotoxenosbishoppi (Pierce, 1909), comb. nov. ; Leionotoxenosforaminati (Pierce, 1911), comb. nov. ; Leionotoxenosfundati (Pierce, 1911), comb. nov. ; Leionotoxenoshuastecae (Székessy, 1965), comb. nov. ; Leionotoxenositatiaiae (Trois, 1984), comb. nov. ; Leionotoxenosneomexicanus (Pierce, 1919), comb. nov. ; Leionotoxenosprolificum (Teson & Remes Lenicov, 1979), comb. nov. ; Leionotoxenosrobertsoni (Pierce, 1911), comb. nov. ; Leionotoxenostigridis (Pierce, 1911), comb. nov. ; Leionotoxenosvigili (Brèthes, 1923), comb. nov. ; Eupathoceraargentina (Brèthes, 1923), comb. nov. ; Eupathoceraauripedis (Pierce, 1911), comb. nov. ; Eupathocerabucki (Trois, 1984), comb. nov. ; Eupathoceraduryi (Pierce, 1909), comb. nov. ; Eupathoceraerynnidis (Pierce, 1911), comb. nov. ; Eupathocerafasciati (Pierce, 1909), comb. nov. ; Eupathocerafuliginosi (Brèthes, 1923), comb. nov. ; Eupathocerainclusa (Oliveira & Kogan, 1963), comb. nov. ; Eupathocerainsularis (Kifune, 1983), comb. nov. ; Eupathoceramendozae (Brèthes, 1923), comb. nov. ; Eupathocerapiercei (Brèthes, 1923), comb. nov. ; Eupathocerastriati (Brèthes, 1923), comb. nov. ; Eupathocerataschenbergi (Brèthes, 1923), comb. nov. ; Eupathocerawestwoodii (Templeton, 1841), comb. nov. ; Macroxenospapuanus (Székessy, 1956), comb. nov. ; Sphecixenosabbotti (Pierce, 1909), comb. nov. ; Sphecixenosastrolabensis (Székessy, 1956), comb. nov. ; Sphecixenosdorae (Luna de Carvalho, 1956), comb. nov. ; Sphecixenoserimae (Székessy, 1956), comb. nov. ; Sphecixenosesakii (Hirashima & Kifune, 1962), comb. nov. ; Sphecixenosgigas (Pasteels, 1950), comb. nov. ; Sphecixenoskurosawai (Kifune, 1984), comb. nov. ; Sphecixenoslaetum (Ogloblin, 1926), comb. nov. ; Sphecixenosorientalis (Kifune, 1985), comb. nov. ; Sphecixenosreticulatus (Luna de Carvalho, 1972), comb. nov. ; Sphecixenossimplex (Székessy, 1956), comb. nov. ; Sphecixenosvanderiisti (Pasteels, 1952), comb. nov. ; Tuberoxenosaltozambeziensis (Luna de Carvalho, 1959), comb. nov. ; Tuberoxenossinuatus (Pasteels, 1956), comb. nov. ; Tuberoxenossphecidarum (Siebold, 1839), comb. nov. ; Tuberoxenosteres (Pasteels, 1950), comb. nov. ; Tuberoxenostibetanus (Yang, 1981), comb. nov. ; Deltoxenosbequaerti (Luna de Carvalho, 1956), comb. nov. ; Deltoxenosbidentatus (Pasteels, 1950), comb. nov. ; Deltoxenoshirokoae (Kifune & Yamane, 1992), comb. nov. ; Deltoxenosiwatai (Esaki, 1931), comb. nov. ; Deltoxenoslusitanicus (Luna de Carvalho, 1960), comb. nov. ; Deltoxenosminor (Kifune & Maeta, 1978), comb. nov. ; Deltoxenosrueppelli (Kinzelbach, 1971a), comb. nov. ; Xenosropalidiae (Kinzelbach, 1975), comb. nov. Xenosminor Kinzelbach, 1971a, syn. nov. is recognized as a junior synonym of X.vesparum Rossi, 1793. Ophthalmochlusduryi Pierce, 1908, nomen nudum and Eupathoceralugubris Pierce, 1908, nomen nudum are recognized as nomina nuda and therefore unavailable in zoological nomenclature. The species diversity of Xenidae probably remains poorly known: the expected number of species is at least twice as high as the number presently described., (Daniel Benda, Hans Pohl, Yuta Nakase, Rolf Beutel, Jakub Straka.)