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Metal-organic decomposition epitaxy is an economical wet-chemical approach suitable to synthesize high-quality low-spin-damping films for resonator and oscillator applications. This work reports the temperature dependence of ferromagnetic resonances and associated structural and magnetic quantities of yttrium iron garnet nanofilms that coincide with single-crystal values. Despite imperfections originating from wet-chemical deposition and spin coating, the quality factor for out-of-plane and in-plane resonances approaches 600 and 1000, respectively, at room temperature and 40 GHz. These values increase with temperature and are 100 times larger than those offered by commercial devices based on complementary metal-oxide semiconductor voltage-controlled oscillators at comparable production costs.

We report the real-valued static and complex-valued quasi-static anisotropic permittivity parameters of rare-earth scandate orthorhombic single crystal GdScO3 (GSO), TbScO3 (TSO), and DyScO3 (DSO). Employing continuous-wave terahertz spectroscopy (0.2–1 THz), the complex permittivity was extracted using an anisotropic ambient-film-ambient model. Data obtained from multiple samples of the same oxides and different surface cuts were analyzed simultaneously. The zero-frequency limit of the modeled data indicates that at room temperature the real part of the dielectric tensor components for GSO are ɛa = 22.7, ɛb = 19.3, and ɛc = 28.1; for DSO, ɛa = 20.3, ɛb = 17.4, and ɛc = 31.1; and for TSO, ɛa = 21.6, ɛb = 18.1, and ɛc = 30.3, with a, b, and c crystallographic axes constituting the principal directions for the permittivity tensor. These results are in excellent agreement with expectations from theoretical computations and with scarcely available data from previous experimental studies. Furthermore, our results evidence a noticeable attenuation, which increases with frequency, and are very significant especially at the higher frequency end of the measurement and along the c-direction in all samples. We suggest the attenuation is most likely caused by the onset of absorption due to long-wavelength active optical phonon modes. These results are important for electronic and potential sub-terahertz applications (e.g., quarter-wave plate) benefiting from the large index contrast along different directions in these materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Al x Ga 1 − x N/GaN high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT) structures are key components in electronic devices operating at gigahertz or higher frequencies. In order to optimize such HEMT structures, understanding their electronic response at high frequencies and room temperature is required. Here, we present a study of the room temperature free charge carrier properties of the two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) in HEMT structures with varying Al content in the Al x Ga 1 − x N barrier layers between x = 0.07 and x = 0.42. We discuss and compare 2DEG sheet density, mobility, effective mass, sheet resistance, and scattering times, which are determined by theoretical calculations, contactless Hall effect, capacitance-voltage, Eddy current, and cavity-enhanced terahertz optical Hall effect (THz-OHE) measurements using a low-field permanent magnet (0.6 T). From our THz-OHE results, we observe that the measured mobility reduction from x = 0.13 to x = 0.42 is driven by the decrease in 2DEG scattering time, and not the change in effective mass. For x < 0.42 , the 2DEG effective mass is found to be larger than for electrons in bulk GaN, which in turn, contributes to a decrease in the principally achievable mobility. From our theoretical calculations, we find that values close to 0.3 m 0 can be explained by the combined effects of conduction band nonparabolicity, polarons, and hybridization of the electron wavefunction through penetration into the barrier layer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a ground-breaking development, The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) responded to the global call for human rights protection within the sports world by adopting a Human Rights Policy. This policy represents a significant paradigm shift, redefining how sports organisations approach and advocate for equality, respect, and accountability in human rights. This article uses a single and explanatory qualitative case study approach to examine the effects of FIFA's Human Rights Policy on the organisation. Data for this research were obtained through a documentary analysis of reports from FIFA's Human Rights Advisory Board as well as eight semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders. The study sheds light on transformative changes across the administration of the organisation, its governance structures and decision-making procedures. By building on organisational change models, the study reveals a dual impact of FIFA's Human Rights Policy. On the one hand, positive outcomes were identified, including significant organisational and administrative changes, increased resources, improvements in the FIFA World Cup bidding process and enhanced stakeholder engagement. On the other, challenges persist in fully integrating human rights throughout the organisation, particularly in leadership, governance structures, political decision-making, and remedy mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate the time evolution of ZnO thin film growth in oxygen plasma-enhanced atomic layer deposition using in situ spectroscopic ellipsometry. The recently proposed dynamic-dual-box-model approach [Kilic et al., Sci. Rep. 10, 10392 (2020)] is used to analyze the spectroscopic data post-growth. With the help of this model, we explore the in-cycle surface modifications and reveal the repetitive layer-by-layer growth and surface roughness modification mechanisms during the ZnO ultrathin film deposition. The in situ complex-valued dielectric function of the amorphous ZnO thin film is also determined from the model analysis for photon energies of 1.7–4 eV. The dielectric function is analyzed using a critical point model approach providing parameters for bandgap energy, amplitude, and broadening in addition to the index of refraction and extinction coefficient. The dynamic-dual-box-model analysis reveals the initial nucleation phase where the surface roughness changes due to nucleation and island growth prior to film coalescence, which then lead to the surface conformal layer-by-layer growth with constant surface roughness. The thickness evolution is resolved with Angstrom-scale resolution vs time. We propose this method for fast development of growth recipes from real-time in situ data analysis. We also present and discuss results from x-ray diffraction, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and atomic force microscopy to examine crystallographic, chemical, and morphological characteristics of the ZnO film. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The anisotropic optical absorption edge of β-Ga2O3 follows a modified Beer–Lambert law having two effective absorption coefficients. The absorption coefficient of linearly polarized light reduces to the least absorbing direction beyond a critical penetration depth, which itself depends on polarization and wavelength. To understand this behavior, a Stokes vector analysis is performed to track the polarization state as a function of depth. The weakening of the absorption coefficient is associated with a gradual shift of linear polarization to the least absorbing crystallographic direction in the plane, which is along the a-exciton within the (010) plane or along the b-exciton in the (001) plane. We show that strong linear dichroism near the optical absorption edge causes this shift in β-Ga2O3, which arises from the anisotropy and spectral splitting of the physical absorbers, i.e., excitons. The linear polarization shift is accompanied by a variation in the ellipticity due to the birefringence of β-Ga2O3. Analysis of the phase relationship between the incoming electric field to that at a certain depth reveals the phase speed as an effective refractive index, which varies along different crystallographic directions. The critical penetration depth is shown to be correlated with the depth at which the ellipticity is maximal. Thus, the anisotropic Beer–Lambert law arises from the interplay of both the dichroic and birefringent properties of β-Ga2O3. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The anisotropic optical absorption edge of β-Ga2O3 follows a modified Beer–Lambert law having two effective absorption coefficients. The absorption coefficient of linearly polarized light reduces to the least absorbing direction beyond a critical penetration depth, which itself depends on polarization and wavelength. To understand this behavior, a Stokes vector analysis is performed to track the polarization state as a function of depth. The weakening of the absorption coefficient is associated with a gradual shift of linear polarization to the least absorbing crystallographic direction in the plane, which is along the a-exciton within the (010) plane or along the b-exciton in the (001) plane. We show that strong linear dichroism near the optical absorption edge causes this shift in β-Ga2O3, which arises from the anisotropy and spectral splitting of the physical absorbers, i.e., excitons. The linear polarization shift is accompanied by a variation in the ellipticity due to the birefringence of β-Ga2O3. Analysis of the phase relationship between the incoming electric field to that at a certain depth reveals the phase speed as an effective refractive index, which varies along different crystallographic directions. The critical penetration depth is shown to be correlated with the depth at which the ellipticity is maximal. Thus, the anisotropic Beer–Lambert law arises from the interplay of both the dichroic and birefringent properties of β-Ga2O3. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This document is a collection of research papers on wide- and ultrawide-bandgap electronic semiconductor devices. It focuses on the progress and challenges in developing devices made from wide-bandgap materials like GaN, AlGaN, AlN, Ga2O3, BN, and diamond for power, rf, and photonic applications. The papers cover topics such as improving GaN power devices, exploring new wide bandgap materials, and investigating gate insulator properties. Additionally, there are papers on defect detection, new concepts for wide bandgap devices, and the growth and properties of different materials. The research provides valuable insights for researchers interested in using these materials in electronic devices. [Extracted from the article]

Group-III nitrides have transformed solid-state lighting and are strategically positioned to revolutionize high-power and high-frequency electronics. To drive this development forward, a deep understanding of fundamental material properties, such as charge carrier behavior, is essential and can also unveil new and unforeseen applications. This underscores the necessity for novel characterization tools to study group-III nitride materials and devices. The optical Hall effect (OHE) emerges as a contactless method for exploring the transport and electronic properties of semiconductor materials, simultaneously offering insights into their dielectric function. This non-destructive technique employs spectroscopic ellipsometry at long wavelengths in the presence of a magnetic field and provides quantitative information on the charge carrier density, sign, mobility, and effective mass of individual layers in multilayer structures and bulk materials. In this paper, we explore the use of terahertz (THz) OHE to study the charge carrier properties in group-III nitride heterostructures and bulk material. Examples include graded AlGaN channel high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT) structures for high-linearity devices, highlighting the different grading profiles and their impact on the two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) properties. Next, we demonstrate the sensitivity of the THz OHE to distinguish the 2DEG anisotropic mobility parameters in N-polar GaN/AlGaN HEMTs and show that this anisotropy is induced by the step-like surface morphology. Finally, we present the temperature-dependent results on the charge carrier properties of 2DEG and bulk electrons in GaN with a focus on the effective mass parameter and review the effective mass parameters reported in the literature. These studies showcase the capabilities of the THz OHE for advancing the understanding and development of group-III materials and devices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report the effect of remote surface optical (RSO) phonon scattering on carrier mobility in monolayer graphene gated by ferroelectric oxide. We fabricate monolayer graphene transistors back-gated by epitaxial (001) Ba0.6Sr0.4TiO3 films, with field effect mobility up to 23 000 cm2 V−1 s−1 achieved. Switching ferroelectric polarization induces nonvolatile modulation of resistance and quantum Hall effect in graphene at low temperatures. Ellipsometry spectroscopy studies reveal four pairs of optical phonon modes in Ba0.6Sr0.4TiO3, from which we extract RSO phonon frequencies. The temperature dependence of resistivity in graphene can be well accounted for by considering the scattering from the intrinsic longitudinal acoustic phonon and the RSO phonon, with the latter dominated by the mode at 35.8 meV. Our study reveals the room temperature mobility limit of ferroelectric-gated graphene transistors imposed by RSO phonon scattering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electron effective mass is a fundamental material parameter defining the free charge carrier transport properties, but it is very challenging to be experimentally determined at high temperatures relevant to device operation. In this work, we obtain the electron effective mass parameters in a Si-doped GaN bulk substrate and epitaxial layers from terahertz (THz) and mid-infrared (MIR) optical Hall effect (OHE) measurements in the temperature range of 38–340 K. The OHE data are analyzed using the well-accepted Drude model to account for the free charge carrier contributions. A strong temperature dependence of the electron effective mass parameter in both bulk and epitaxial GaN with values ranging from (0.18 ± 0.02) m0 to (0.34 ± 0.01) m0 at a low temperature (38 K) and room temperature, respectively, is obtained from the THz OHE analysis. The observed effective mass enhancement with temperature is evaluated and discussed in view of conduction band nonparabolicity, polaron effect, strain, and deviations from the classical Drude behavior. On the other hand, the electron effective mass parameter determined by MIR OHE is found to be temperature independent with a value of (0.200 ± 0.002) m0. A possible explanation for the different findings from THz OHE and MIR OHE is proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The anisotropic permittivity parameters of monoclinic single crystal lutetium oxyorthosilicate, Lu2SiO5 (LSO), have been determined in the terahertz spectral range. Using terahertz generalized spectroscopic ellipsometry (THz-GSE), we obtained the THz permittivities along the a, b, and c ⋆ crystal directions, which correspond to the ε a , ε b , and ε c ⋆ on-diagonal tensor elements. The associated off diagonal tensor element ε a c ⋆ was also determined experimentally, which is required to describe LSO's optical response in the monoclinic a–c crystallographic plane. From the four tensor elements obtained in the model fit, we calculate the direction of the principal dielectric axes in the a–c plane. We find good agreement when comparing THz-GSE permittivities to the static permittivity tensors from previous infrared and density functional theory studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A complete set of all optical phonon modes predicted by symmetry for bixbyite structure indium oxide is reported here from a combination of far-infrared and infrared spectroscopic ellipsometry, as well as first principles calculations. Dielectric function spectra measured on high quality, marginally electrically conductive melt grown single bulk crystals are obtained on a wavelength-by-wavelength (also known as point-by-point) basis and by numerical reduction of a subtle free charge carrier Drude model contribution. A four-parameter semi-quantum model is applied to determine all 16 pairs of infrared-active transverse and longitudinal optical phonon modes, including the high-frequency dielectric constant, ε ∞ = 4.05 ± 0.05. The Lyddane–Sachs–Teller relation then gives access to the static dielectric constant, ε DC = 10.55 ± 0.07. All experimental results are in excellent agreement with our density functional theory calculations and with previously reported values, where existent. We also perform optical Hall effect measurements and determine for the unintentionally doped n -type sample a free electron density of n = (2.81 ± 0.01) × 10 17 cm − 3 , a mobility of μ = (112 ± 3) cm 2 /(Vs), and an effective mass parameter of (0.208 ± 0.006) m e. Density and mobility parameters compare very well with the results of electrical Hall effect measurements. Our effective mass parameter, which is measured independently of any other experimental technique, represents the bottom curvature of the Γ point in In 2 O 3 in agreement with previous extrapolations. We use terahertz spectroscopic ellipsometry to measure the quasi-static response of In 2 O 3 , and our model validates the static dielectric constant obtained from the Lyddane–Sachs–Teller relation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The infrared-active phonon modes, in single-crystal samples of thorium dioxide (ThO 2) and uranium dioxide (UO 2), were investigated using spectroscopic ellipsometry and compared with density functional theory. Both ThO 2 and UO 2 are found to have one infrared-active phonon mode pair [consisting of one transverse optic (TO) and one associated longitudinal optic (LO) mode], which is responsible for the dominant features in the ellipsometric data. At room temperature, our results for the mode pair's resonant frequencies and broadening parameters are comparable with previous reflectance spectroscopy characterizations and density functional theory predictions. For ThO 2 , our ellipsometry and density function theory results both show that the LO mode broadening parameter is larger than the TO mode broadening. This signifies mode anharmonicity, which can be attributed to the intrinsic phonon–phonon interaction. In addition to the main mode pair, a broad low-amplitude impurity-like vibrational mode pair is detected within the reststrahlen band for both ThO 2 and UO 2. Elevated temperature measurements were performed for ThO 2 in order to study the mechanisms by which the phonon parameters evolve with increased heat. The observed change in the TO resonant frequency is in excellent agreement with previous density functional calculations, which only consider volume expansion of the crystal lattice. This suggests that the temperature-dependent change in the TO frequency is primarily due to volume expansion. The change in the main mode pair's broadening parameters is nearly linear within the temperature range of this study, which indicates the intrinsic anharmonic scattering (via cubic anharmonicities) as the main decay mechanism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the use of optical spectroscopy and microscopy for characterizing materials with high spatial resolution. It explains the limitations of traditional techniques due to the diffraction of light and introduces the concept of near-field imaging using metallic scanning probe tips. The article highlights the advantages of this approach, such as improved sensitivity, higher spatial resolution, and a broader wavelength range. It also explores the various applications of near-field imaging, including nano-FTIR, tip-enhanced Raman scattering, and photo-induced force microscopy. The article concludes by discussing the future directions of the field, such as multimodal imaging and computational imaging techniques. [Extracted from the article]

Recently, broken symmetry within crystals has been attracting tremendous research interest since it can be utilized to effectively manipulate the propagation of photons. In particular, low-symmetry Bravais crystals can support hyperbolic shear polaritons (HShPs), holding great promise for technological upgrading in the emerging research area of spinoptics. Herein, an Otto-type multilayer structure consisting of a KRS5 prism, a sensing medium, and monoclinic β-Ga2O3 crystals is designed to ameliorate the photonic spin Hall effect (PSHE). The surface of β-Ga2O3 is the monoclinic (010) plane (x–y plane). We show that giant spin Hall shifts with three (or two) orders of magnitude of the incident wavelength can be obtained in the in-plane (or transverse) directions. The azimuthal dispersions of photonic spin Hall shifts present non-mirror-symmetric patterns upon tuning the rotation angle of β-Ga2O3 around the z-axis in the plane. All of these exotic optical properties are closely correlated with the broken crystal lattice symmetry and the incurred excitation of HShPs in monoclinic β-Ga2O3 crystals. By virtue of the remarkably enhanced PSHE, our proposed Otto-type multilayer structure shows a superior biosensing performance in which the maximum sensitivity is two orders of magnitude larger than that of previously reported PSHE biosensors based on two-dimensional materials. In addition, the optimized physical and structural parameters including the incident angle, excitation wavelength, azimuth angle and doping concentration of β-Ga2O3, thickness and refractive index of sensing medium are also investigated and presented. This work unequivocally confirms the strong influence of crystal symmetry on the PSHE, providing important insights into understanding the rich modulation of spin–orbit interactions of light via shear polaritons and therefore facilitating potential applications in photoelectronic devices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

WO3 thin films were grown by atomic layer deposition and spectroscopic ellipsometry data gathered in the photon energy range of 0.72–8.5 eV, and from multiple samples were utilized to determine the frequency dependent complex-valued isotropic dielectric function for WO3. We employ a critical-point model dielectric function analysis and determine a parameterized set of oscillators and compare the observed critical-point contributions with the vertical transition energy distribution found within the band structure of WO3 calculated by the density functional theory. The surface roughness was investigated using atomic force microscopy, and compared with the effective roughness as seen by the spectroscopic ellipsometry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mueller matrix spectroscopic ellipsometry is applied to determine anisotropic optical properties for a set of single-crystal rhombohedral structure α-(AlxGa1−x)2O3 thin films (0 ≤ x ≤ 1). Samples are grown by plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy on m-plane sapphire. A critical-point model is used to render a spectroscopic model dielectric function tensor and to determine direct electronic band-to-band transition parameters, including the direction dependent two lowest-photon energy band-to-band transitions associated with the anisotropic bandgap. We obtain the composition dependence of the direction dependent two lowest band-to-band transitions with separate bandgap bowing parameters associated with the perpendicular ( b E g , ⊥ = 1.31 eV) and parallel ( b E g , | | = 1.61 eV) electric field polarization to the lattice c direction. Our density functional theory calculations indicate a transition from indirect to direct characteristics between α-Ga2O3 and α-Al2O3, respectively, and we identify a switch in band order where the lowest band-to-band transition occurs with polarization perpendicular to c in α-Ga2O3 whereas for α-Al2O3 the lowest transition occurs with polarization parallel to c. We estimate that the change in band order occurs at approximately 40% Al content. Additionally, the characteristic of the lowest energy critical point transition for polarization parallel to c changes from M1 type in α-Ga2O3 to M0 type van Hove singularity in α-Al2O3. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report on the free charge carrier properties of a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) in an AlN/AlxGa1–xN high electron mobility transistor structure with a high aluminum content (x = 0.78). The 2DEG sheet density N s = (7.3 ± 0.7) × 10 12 cm−2, sheet mobility μ s = (270 ± 40) cm2/(Vs), sheet resistance R s = (3200 ± 500) Ω / ◻ , and effective mass m eff = (0.63 ± 0.04) m 0 at low temperatures (T = 5 K) are determined by terahertz (THz) optical Hall effect measurements. The experimental 2DEG mobility in the channel is found within the expected range, and the sheet carrier density is in good agreement with self-consistent Poisson–Schrödinger calculations. However, a significant increase in the effective mass of 2DEG electrons at low temperatures is found in comparison with the respective value in bulk Al0.78Ga22N ( m eff = 0.334 m 0 ). Possible mechanisms for the enhanced 2DEG effective mass parameter are discussed and quantified using self-consistent Poisson–Schrödinger calculations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The hot-wall metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) concept, previously shown to enable superior material quality and high performance devices based on wide bandgap semiconductors, such as Ga(Al)N and SiC, has been applied to the epitaxial growth of β-Ga2O3. Epitaxial β-Ga2O3 layers at high growth rates (above 1 μm/h), at low reagent flows, and at reduced growth temperatures (740 °C) are demonstrated. A high crystalline quality epitaxial material on a c-plane sapphire substrate is attained as corroborated by a combination of x-ray diffraction, high-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy, and spectroscopic ellipsometry measurements. The hot-wall MOCVD process is transferred to homoepitaxy, and single-crystalline homoepitaxial β-Ga2O3 layers are demonstrated with a 2 ̄ 01 rocking curve width of 118 arc sec, which is comparable to those of the edge-defined film-fed grown ( 2 ̄ 01) β-Ga2O3 substrates, indicative of similar dislocation densities for epilayers and substrates. Hence, hot-wall MOCVD is proposed as a prospective growth method to be further explored for the fabrication of β-Ga2O3. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]