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A theory on the formation of a protoplanet is discussed in light of viscous bodies. Near misses provide tidal forces which determine the shape of the surface of the planet. Viscous bodies held together by self gravity with a radii exceeding 200 km become ellipsoidal if the radius is smaller in relation to the distance of closest approach. Disrupted planetissimals develop needle-like ellipsoids.

We compare the performance of mass estimators for elliptical galaxies that rely on the directly observable surface brightness and velocity dispersion profiles, without invoking computationally expensive detailed modelling. These methods recover the mass at a specific radius where the mass estimate is expected to be least sensitive to the anisotropy of stellar orbits. One uses the total luminosity-weighted velocity dispersion and evaluates the mass at a 3D half-light radius r1/2, i.e. it depends on the global galaxy properties. Another approach estimates the mass from the velocity dispersion at a radius R2 where the surface brightness declines as R-2, i.e. it depends on the local properties. We evaluate the accuracy of the two methods for analytical models, simulated galaxies and real elliptical galaxies that have already been modelled by the Schwarzschild's orbit-superposition technique. Both estimators recover an almost unbiased circular speed estimate with a modest rms scatter (≲10 per cent). Tests on analytical models and simulated galaxies indicate that the local estimator has a smaller rms scatter than the global one. We show by examination of simulated galaxies that the projected velocity dispersion at R2 could serve as a good proxy for the virial galaxy mass. For simulated galaxies the total halo mass scales with sp(R2) as Mvir[M⊙h-1]≈6×1012(...)4 with rms scatter ≈40 per cent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We analyse six X-ray bright elliptical galaxies, observed with Chandra and XMM–Newton, and approximate their gravitational potentials by isothermal spheres over a range of radii from ∼0.5 to ∼25 kpc. We then compare the circular speed vc derived from X-ray data with the estimators available from optical data. In particular, we discuss two simple and robust procedures for evaluating the circular speed of the galaxy using the observed optical surface brightness and the line-of-sight velocity dispersion profiles. The best-fitting relation between the circular speeds derived from optical observations of stars and X-ray observations of hot gas is , where (depending on the method), suggesting, albeit with large statistical and systematic uncertainties, that non-thermal pressure on average contributes ∼20–30 per cent of the gas thermal pressure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We show that the algorithm proposed by Gauss to compute the secular evolution of gravitationally interacting Keplerian rings extends naturally to softened gravitational interactions. The resulting tool is ideal for the study of the secular dynamical evolution of nearly Keplerian systems such as stellar clusters surrounding black holes in galactic nuclei, cometary clouds or planetesimal discs. We illustrate its accuracy, efficiency and versatility on a variety of configurations. In particular, we examine a secularly unstable system of counterrotating discs, and follow the unfolding and saturation of the instability into a global, uniformly precessing, lopsided mode. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We compare the gravitational potential profiles of the elliptical galaxies NGC 4486 (M87) and NGC 1399 (the central galaxy in the Fornax cluster) derived from X-ray and optical data. This comparison suggests that the combined contribution of cosmic rays, magnetic fields and microturbulence to the pressure is ∼10 per cent of the gas thermal pressure in the cores of NGC 1399 and M87, although the uncertainties in our model assumptions (e.g. spherical symmetry) are sufficiently large that the contribution could be consistent with zero. In the absence of any other form of non-thermal pressure support, these upper bounds translate into upper limits on the magnetic field of ∼10–20 μG at a distance of 1–2 arcmin from the centers of NGC 1399 and M87. We show that these results are consistent with the current paradigm of cool cluster cores, based on the assumption that active galactic nuclei regulate the thermal state of the gas by injecting energy into the intracluster medium. The limit of ∼10–20 per cent on the energy density in the form of relativistic protons applies not only to the current state of the gas, but also essentially to the entire history of the intracluster medium, provided that cosmic ray protons evolve adiabatically and that their spatial diffusion is suppressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is strong evidence for some kind of massive dark object in the centres of many galaxy bulges. The detection of flares from tidally disrupted stars could confirm that these objects are black holes (BHs). Here we present calculations of the stellar disruption rates in detailed dynamical models of real galaxies, taking into account the refilling of the loss cone of stars on disruptable orbits by two-body relaxation and tidal forces in non-spherical galaxies. The highest disruption rates (one star per 10[sup 4] yr) occur in faint (L≲10[sup 10] L[sub ⊙]) galaxies, which have steep central density cusps. More luminous galaxies are less dense and have much longer relaxation times and more massive BHs. Dwarf stars in such galaxies are swallowed whole by the BH and hence do not emit flares; giant stars could produce flares as often as every 10[sup 5] yr, although the rate depends sensitively on the shape of the stellar distribution function. We discuss the possibility of detecting disruption flares in current supernova searches. The total mass of stars consumed over the lifetime of the galaxy is of the order of 10[sup 6] M[sub ⊙], independent of galaxy luminosity; thus, disrupted stars may contribute significantly to the present BH mass in galaxies fainter than ∼10[sup 9] L[sub ⊙]. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Partially phase-mixed structures in galaxies occupy a complex surface of dimension D in six-dimensional phase space. The appearance of such structures to observers is determined by their projection into a space the dimensionality K of which is determined by the number of observables (e.g. sky position, distance, radial velocity, etc.). We discuss the expected dimensionality of phase-space structures and suggest that the most prominent features in surveys with K⩾D will be stable singularities (catastrophes). The simplest of these are the shells seen in the outer parts of elliptical galaxies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Why do galactic bars rotate with high pattern speeds, when dynamical friction should rapidly couple the bar to the massive, slowly rotating dark halo? This long-standing paradox may be resolved by considering the dynamical interactions between the galactic disc and structures in the dark halo. Dynamical friction between small-scale halo structure and the disc spins up and flattens the inner halo, thereby quenching the dynamical friction exerted by the halo on the bar; at the same time the halo heats and thickens the inner disc, perhaps forming a rapidly rotating bulge. Two possible candidates for the required halo structures are massive black holes and tidal streamers from disrupted precursor haloes. More generally, gravitational scattering from phase-wrapped inhomogeneities represents a novel relaxation process in stellar systems, intermediate between violent relaxation and two-body relaxation, which can isotropize the distribution function at radii where two-body relaxation is not effective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT We apply linear response theory to a general, inhomogeneous, stationary stellar system, with particular emphasis on dissipative processes analogous to Landau damping. Assuming only that the response is causal, we show that the irreversible work done by an external perturber is described by the anti-Hermitian part of a linear response operator, and damping of collective modes is described by the anti-Hermitian part of a related polarization operator. We derive an exact formal expression for the response operator, which is the classical analogue of a well-known result in quantum statistical physics. When the self-gravity of the response can be ignored, and the Hamiltonian corresponding to the ensemble-averaged gravitational potential is integrable, the expressions for the mode energy, damping rate and polarization operator reduce to well-known formulae derived from perturbation theory in action-angle variables. In this approximation, dissipation occurs only via resonant interaction with stellar orbits or collective modes. For stellar systems in thermal equilibrium, the anti-Hermitian part of the response operator is directly related to the correlation function of the fluctuations. Thus dissipative properties of the system are completely determined by the spectrum of density fluctuations – the fluctuation dissipation theorem. In particular, we express the coefficient of dynamical friction for an orbiting test particle in terms of the fluctuation spectrum; this reduces to the known Chandrasekhar formula in the restrictive case of an infinite homogeneous system with a Maxwellian velocity distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discusses how studies of the dynamics of galaxies show that at least 90 percent of the mass in the universe is in some invisible, unknown form. A remarkable conclusion, based on nucleosynthesis arguments, is that most of the dark matter is not composed of protons or neutrons. Galaxy rotation curves; Clusters of galaxies; Dynamics on larger scales; What dark matter is.

The centers of most galaxies contain massive black holes surrounded by dense star clusters. The structure of these clusters determines the rate and properties of observable transient events, such as flares from tidally disrupted stars and gravitational-wave signals from stars spiraling into the black hole. Most estimates of these rates enforce spherical symmetry on the cluster. Here we show that, in the course of generic evolutionary processes, a star cluster surrounding a black hole can undergo a robust phase transition from a spherical thermal equilibrium to a lopsided equilibrium, in which most stars are on high-eccentricity orbits with aligned orientations. The rate of transient events is expected to be much higher in the ordered phase. Better models of cluster formation and evolution are needed to determine whether clusters should be found in the ordered or disordered phase.

Numerous telescopes and techniques have been used to find and study extrasolar planets, but none has been more successful than NASA's Kepler space telescope. Kepler has discovered most of the known exoplanets, the smallest planets to orbit normal stars and the planets most likely to be similar to Earth. Most importantly, Kepler has provided us with our first look at the typical characteristics of planets and planetary systems for planets with sizes as small as, and orbits as large as, those of Earth.

If accretion onto massive black holes is the power source for active galaxies, then nearby galaxies should contain 'dead quasars': black holes that do not shine, either because they are starved for fuel or because they accrete with low radiative efficiency. This article briefly reviews the evidence that most inactive galaxies contain black holes at their centres, and how the local distribution of black holes is related to the population of active galaxies.

The spins of the terrestrial planets likely arose as the planets formed by the accretion of planetesimals. Depending on the masses of the impactors, the planet's final spin can either be imparted by many small bodies (ordered accretion), in which case the spin is determined by the mean angular momentum of the impactors, or by a few large bodies (stochastic accretion), in which case the spin is a random variable whose distribution is determined by the root-mean-square angular momentum of the impactors. In the case of ordered accretion, the planet's obliquity is expected to be near 0 degrees or 180 degrees , whereas, if accretion is stochastic, there should be a wide range of obliquities. Analytic arguments and extensive orbital integrations are used to calculate the expected distributions of spin rate and obliquity as a function of the planetesimal mass and velocity distributions. The results imply that the spins of the terrestrial planets are determined by stochastic accretion.

Although the impact of acidification on planktonic grazer food webs has been extensively studied, little is known about microbial food webs either in the water column or in the sediments. Protozoon-bacterium interactions were investigated in a chronically acidified (acid mine drainage) portion of a lake in Virginia. We determined the distribution, abundance, apparent specific grazing rate, and growth rate of protozoa over a pH range of 3.6 to 6.5. Protozoan abundance was lower at the most acidified site, while abundance, in general, was high compared with other systems. Specific grazing rates were uncorrelated with pH and ranged between 0.02 and 0.23 h, values similar to those in unacidified systems. The protozoan community from an acidified station was not better adapted (P = 0.95) to low-pH conditions than a community from an unacidified site (multivariate analysis of variance on growth rates for each community incubated at pHs 4, 5, and 6). Both communities had significantly lower (P < 0.05) growth rates at pHs 4 and 5 than at pH 6. Reduced protozoan growth rates coupled with high grazing rates and relatively higher bacterial yields (ratio of bacterial-protozoan standing stock) at low pH indicate reduced net protozoan growth efficiency and a metabolic cost of acidification to the protozoan community. However, the presence of an abundant, neutrophilic protozoan community and high bacterial grazing rates indicates that acidification of Lake Anna has not inhibited the bacterium-protozoon link of the sediment microbial food web.

The critical assumptions of the dilution method for estimating grazing rates of microzooplankton were tested by using a community from the sediment-water interface of Lake Anna, Va. Determination of the appropriate computational model was achieved by regression analysis; the exponential model was appropriate for bacterial growth at Lake Anna. The assumption that the change in grazing pressure is linearly proportional to the dilution factor was tested by analysis of variance with a lack-of-fit test. There was a significant (P < 0.0001) linear (P > 0.05) relationship between the dilution factor and time-dependent change in ln bacterial abundance. The assumption that bacterial growth is not altered by possible substrate enrichment in the dilution treatment was tested by amending diluted water with various amounts of dissolved organic carbon (either yeast extract or extracted carbon from lake sediments). Additions of carbon did not significantly alter bacterial growth rates during the incubation period (24 h). On the basis of these results, the assumptions of the dilution method proved to be valid for the system examined.

Planning for the future is under way in earnest at the Aeronautical Systems Division (ASD) at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. It has been statistically established that it takes from 14-16 years from the generation of a new system idea to enter into engineering development. With this unpleasing, but realistic, schedule in mind, ASD has, during the last 3 years, been initiating long-term planning projects that are pre-starts for new system ideas. They are generated from throughout the Air Force and are locally managed and funded. Through this process, which spans from 12-14 months, specific and revolutionary new ideas for the systems of the future are generated. This article addresses more than a dozen specific new ideas in work at ASD today. These ideas range from a need to replace the C-130 type aircraft after the year 2000 to planning a follow-on to the B-18 well into the 21st century. Among other specific projects are investigation into an immortal fighter intended to be free of reliability and maintenance demands for an especially long period of operation, a new training system and advanced trainer to replace the T-38, a transatmospheric vehicle that could operate in the 100,000-500,000 foot flight region (30,480-152,400 m), and a new means of defending against hostile cruise missile launchers and cruise missiles. Other ideas are also addressed. The article concludes with emphasis on systems that can operate hypersonically in and out of the known atmosphere and greater use of airbreathing propulsion systems operating between Mach 3 and Mach 6.

Four guilds from a lake sediment-water interface microbial community were isolated and tested for sensitivity to cycloheximide (0.1 to 200 mg liter). Field experiments were conducted to compare the inhibition, dilution, and filtration methods for determining grazing rates. Cycloheximide inhibited anaerobic bacteria at 50 mg liter, and inhibition of bacterial growth was observed in the grazing experiments. The results show that the assumption of selective inhibition of heterotrophic eucaryotes was violated and preclude the use of cycloheximide in grazing experiments.