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Despite its widespread commercial use, machine translation has been sparsely employed on literary works, especially on children's literature. This study focuses on reader comprehension of a chapter from Winnie-the-Pooh translated from English into Romanian using DeepL. Machine translation evaluation should focus not only on fluency and adequacy, but also on how readers perceive the target text. Twenty-five participants have annotated the passages that were difficult to understand and those that were logical but contained grammatical or stylistic errors. The survey ended with three comprehensibility and three MT user opinion questions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of English Teaching & Learning is the property of Springer Nature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Introduction: Sickness insurance systems and their processes have been studied in terms of transparency, comprehensibility and fairness, highlighting the importance of just procedures that make sense to clients. Related research demonstrates differences between groups of clients, pointing towards a social gradient. The concept of social insurance literacy and the Social Insurance Literacy Questionnaire (SILQ) was recently developed and serves as a measure for client's ability to obtain, understand and act on information in a sickness insurance system, relating to the comprehensibility of the information that the system provides. Objective: The purpose of this study was to investigate social insurance literacy among clients on sick leave and its associations with perceived justice, being granted sickness benefits and background factors. Methods: This was a questionnaire study with clients on sick leave in Sweden. In the selection process 3993 clients were invited, of which 1173 recently had their sickness benefits withdrawn. Those who answered the SILQ (n = 1152) also answered a perceived justice measure and accepted sharing register data from the Swedish Social Insurance Agency. Data were analyzed through regression analysis. Results: The findings demonstrate that clients' perceptions of system comprehensibility and the status of their sick leave case was significantly associated with perceived justice, and being granted sickness benefits, while their individual abilities to obtain, understand, and act on information had lesser influence. Conclusions: The system's ability to provide understandable information seems more important than clients' abilities to comprehend it. From a client perspective, a just system seems to be related to their experiences of the sick leave process (i,e., whether they had an ongoing or closed case) rather than their skills to obtain the correct information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding a single English accent is becoming insufficient for English language learners because they are likely to encounter both first (L1) and second‐language (L2) speakers of English in various contexts. Hence, different English accents have been incorporated into the recordings used for L2 language assessments, specifically listening comprehension (LC) tests. However, the efficacy of tests using various English accents is not definitively established in the English as a foreign language (EFL) literature. Furthermore, there has been limited investigation specifically into how learners perceive the level of difficulty in comprehending various accents during listening assessments. Therefore, this study examined how the LC scores and comprehensibility ratings (ease of understanding) differed depending on accents. Seventy‐nine Japanese adult EFL learners took a multiple‐choice question‐type LC test featuring three different English accents (i.e., American, British, and Japanese) and then rated how difficult it was to understand each accent. The findings showed that, although the LC test scores did not differ significantly by accent, the participants perceived the British and Japanese accents as more difficult to understand than the American accent. The results imply that while sharing L1 with the speakers and familiarity with a certain accent may not affect speech comprehension, greater familiarity with a given accent can ease comprehension. The findings thus can shed light on the inclusion of a variety of accented speech in language tests and pedagogical instruction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A considerable body of research has investigated the influence of linguistic variables on comprehensibility and accentedness in L2 speech. However, studies on this topic have overwhelmingly focused on L2 English, with little known about other L2s. This study investigated linguistic influences on accentedness and comprehensibility in L2 Korean. Participants included 198 L2 Korean speakers of varying proficiency levels and L1 and 82 L1 Korean listeners from South Korea. The speakers completed a monologic speaking task and their speech samples were coded for phonological, lexical, grammatical, and fluency variables. Listener ratings indicated speakers were perceived as more comprehensible than they were nativelike, but the correlation between the two was extremely strong (r = 0.90). Regression models using linguistic variables to predict comprehensibility and accentedness yielded R2 values of 0.71 and 0.65, respectively. Most linguistic variables had similar influences on comprehensibility and accentedness, with some notable exceptions: intonational phrasing errors and lexical diversity predicted comprehensibility, but not accentedness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although international students often report satisfaction with their studies and view Canada as being tolerant and multicultural, increasing anti-Asian sentiment triggered by the global pandemic has highlighted the importance of exploring whether international students, especially from South and East Asia, experience discrimination. This study examines how university students perceive the speech characteristics (accentedness, comprehensibility), status attributes (e.g. competent, intelligent), and solidarity traits (e.g. pleasant, attractive) of international students from Europe, China, and South Asia along with their interest in participating in academic activities with international students. Eighty university students in Canada evaluated short speech samples from six fellow students from Mandarin Chinese, European (Romanian, German), and South Asian (Urdu) backgrounds, with the voices presented with an image matching or mismatching the speaker's ethnic features. Results showed that the Chinese and South Asian students were rated as more accented and less comprehensible than the European students. They were also viewed less favorably in status and solidarity and received lower academic engagement ratings. Students whose speech was easier to understand received higher status, solidarity, and academic engagement ratings. The findings are discussed in relation to various ways in which universities can reduce prejudicial and discriminatory behaviors toward international students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Prävention und Gesundheitsförderung is the property of Springer Nature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of JALT Journal is the property of Japan Association for Language Teaching and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of European Journal of Applied Linguistics is the property of De Gruyter and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Practicing pronunciation through language learning systems incorporating Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) technology has been effective in helping improve foreign language pronunciation. One of the ASR affordances is that it can provide immediate, personalized feedback on learners' pronunciation. We investigated the effects of two ASR-based language learning systems, I Love Indonesia (ILI) and NovoLearning (NOVO), on learners' word-level and sentence-level pronunciation. ILI offers global corrective feedback, while NOVO is equipped with corrective feedback on phonetic details. 117 Indonesian high school students participated in a five-week-long experiment; 52 students used ILI and 65 NOVO. Three pronunciation measures were calculated on a pre and post reading test: phonetic edit distances plus accentedness and comprehensibility ratings. Results indicate significant improvements in learners' pronunciation, confirming that both systems are promising learning tools, with NOVO leading to more progress. Future studies should examine the long-term effects of ASR-based global and phonetic feedback on learners' pronunciation quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Sense of coherence supports human well-being by using internal and external resources to cope with stress and maintain health. The study was conducted in Qom, Iran from June to October 2022 explored the relationship between sense of coherence and quality of life in elderly Iranians. 300 older adults from a retirement center entered the study via the convenience sampling. Questionnaires of socio-demographic information, quality of life, and sense of coherence were used to collect and analyze the data. The analysis was done using descriptive statistics and multiple linear regression analysis. The majority of participants were male (77.3%) and married (88.7%), and they had a mean age of 64.4 (SD = 5.72) years. Comprehensibility (β = 0.15; P = 0.024), manageability (β = 0.19; P = 0.001), and meaningfulness (β = 0.20; P = 0.001) were associated with better quality of life after controlling for socio-demographic variables. The results indicated that the sense of coherence significantly predicts the quality of life among older adults. Future research should further investigate these findings in diverse populations and work towards developing effective interventions to enhance the quality of life of older adults.

Amid product scandals, corporate malpractices, and the proliferation of misinformation, consumers are becoming increasingly more skeptical about the brands they purchase. Transparency is often hailed as a strategic imperative to reassure consumers and increase brand trust; however, its deployment can be complex. With additional transparency, consumers may become overloaded with information, and the brand may be exposed to unwanted external scrutiny. Consequently, before disclosing strategically sensitive information, brands need more insight into how increasing transparency might translate into strategically desirable consumers' brand evaluations. Addressing this need, we examine how transparency initiatives translate into consumers' evaluation of brands by delineating the dimensions of the perceived brand transparency construct, namely, observability, comprehensibility, and intentionality. Next, we use this conceptualization to develop and validate a scale to measure perceived brand transparency. We close with a brand transparency research agenda, as well as practical guidance for managers considering investing in strategic transparency initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sense of coherence supports human well-being by using internal and external resources to cope with stress and maintain health. The study was conducted in Qom, Iran from June to October 2022 explored the relationship between sense of coherence and quality of life in elderly Iranians. 300 older adults from a retirement center entered the study via the convenience sampling. Questionnaires of socio-demographic information, quality of life, and sense of coherence were used to collect and analyze the data. The analysis was done using descriptive statistics and multiple linear regression analysis. The majority of participants were male (77.3%) and married (88.7%), and they had a mean age of 64.4 (SD = 5.72) years. Comprehensibility (β = 0.15; P = 0.024), manageability (β = 0.19; P = 0.001), and meaningfulness (β = 0.20; P = 0.001) were associated with better quality of life after controlling for socio-demographic variables. The results indicated that the sense of coherence significantly predicts the quality of life among older adults. Future research should further investigate these findings in diverse populations and work towards developing effective interventions to enhance the quality of life of older adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The German weekly magazine DIEZEIT (THE TIME) reaches more than one million readers per issue, mainly from high-income social classes. Pharmacological content is frequent in DIE ZEIT. As it therefore reaches many people who generally have no in-depth knowledge of pharmacology, it can be assumed that DIE ZEIT is an important primary source of information. It should be its task to depict the drugs widely used by the population and to present them correctly and comprehensibly. This study analyzes 71 articles from 2012 to 2022 in terms of form, content, and comprehensibility. The analysis shows that in DIE ZEIT, drug groups largely correspond to the prescription figures and disease prevalence in Germany, with cardiovascular, neuropsychiatric, and pain medications being frequently discussed. There are deviations in the case of oncological drugs, for example, which are discussed more frequently than prescribed. New drug approvals are reported less frequently, and when they are, it is usually about the research phase. DIE ZEIT often reports on findings that are less than a week old and frequently quotes trustworthy experts, but no scientific sources can be found in around a quarter of the articles. A COVID-19 effect can also be identified in the years 2020 to 2022, as reporting on drugs for the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) predominated. An important point of criticism was identified with regard to comprehensibility. Less than half of the articles achieved the cut-off value for general comprehensibility specified by the Textlab analysis program, and only one article achieved the value for target group–oriented comprehensibility. This analysis confirms the problem that science communication is often too complicated and incomprehensible. It discusses the tension between the prescribed drugs and the mission of DIEZEIT to entertain and should serve as a basis for analyzing other newspapers. Finally, we make specific suggestions how presentation of pharmacological topics in lay media can be improved in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many languages, it is common to use masculine-only forms when all genders are meant or gender is irrelevant to the actual statement. This practice is criticized for making women and members of other genders, their achievements and interests, less visible. Gender-fair language is intended to represent all genders equally. Recently introduced forms such as the glottal stop and the gender star are intended to also represent people outside the male–female dichotomy on the linguistic surface. However, it is often argued that gender-fair language would make texts less comprehensible and less aesthetically appealing. The critics’ assumptions were tested in an experiment with 272 participants. Subjects watched a screencast on self-regulated learning and were randomly assigned to either a version using masculine-only forms or a version using the glottal stop and the gender star. Subsequently, participants rated the comprehensibility and aesthetic appeal of the video they had watched. Structural equation models show no statistically significant influence of the use of gender-fair language on the comprehensibility (β = −0.13) or the aesthetic appeal (β = −0.16) of the videos. The critics’ assumptions are therefore not supported. But further studies are needed, especially regarding the corresponding singular forms and with non-academic participants.

With the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, Denmark and Sweden’s governments and health authorities implemented social distancing measures as the main strategy to limit the spread of the coronavirus. In Denmark, these were mostly mandatory, whereas in Sweden they were primarily voluntarily based. The aim of this study was to explore how young adults in Denmark and Sweden retrieved and perceived information during the COVID-19 pandemic and what their experiences of everyday life were with the implemented social distancing measures. To this end, 30 Danish and Swedish young adults between 18 and 25 years were interviewed. The participants considered themselves informed and reflected on multiple sources of information. However, social distancing measures were translated in different ways and had both negative and positive implications for their everyday lives. Many participants felt that their youth – as a significant phase in life – became restricted.

Abstract For common diseases such as lung cancer, patients often use the internet to obtain medical information. As a result of advances in artificial intelligence and large language models such as ChatGPT, patients and health professionals use these tools to obtain medical information. The aim of this study was to evaluate the readability of ChatGPT-generated responses with different readability scales in the context of lung cancer. The most common questions in the lung cancer section of Medscape® were reviewed, and questions on the definition, etiology, risk factors, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of lung cancer (both NSCLC and SCLC) were selected. A set of 80 questions were asked 10 times to ChatGPT via the OpenAI API. ChatGPT's responses were tested using various readability formulas. The mean Flesch Reading Ease, Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level, Gunning FOG Scale, SMOG Index, Automated Readability Index, Coleman-Liau Index, Linsear Write Formula, Dale-Chall Readability Score, and Spache Readability Formula scores are at a moderate level (mean and standard deviation: 40.52 ± 9.81, 12.56 ± 1.66, 13.63 ± 1.54, 14.61 ± 1.45, 15.04 ± 1.97, 14.24 ± 1.90, 11.96 ± 2.55, 10.03 ± 0.63 and 5.93 ± 0.50, respectively). The readability levels of the answers generated by ChatGPT are "collage" and above and are difficult to read. Perhaps in the near future, the ChatGPT can be programmed to produce responses that are appropriate for people of different educational and age groups.

Background There is an increasing interest in cross-linguistic influences of the second language (L2) on the first (L1), but its communicative impact remains to be elucidated. This study investigates how L2 learners’ L1 pronunciation is perceived as foreign-accented and (in) comprehensible as a function of their L2 learning experience and proficiency levels. Methods Read speech of 154 L1 Japanese learners of L2 English in the J-AESOP corpus was examined, where approximately one-third of them had lived in English-speaking countries and the rest had never lived outside of Japan. Their L1 speech was rated by another group of native Japanese listeners for accentedness and comprehensibility (from October 25, 2022 to August 20, 2023), while their L2 speech was previously rated by native American English listeners for nativelikeness or proficiency. The speakers’ vowel acoustics were also examined. Results More proficient L2 speakers were perceived as more foreign-accented in their L1, but only if they had lived overseas; their length of residence abroad predicted the degree of perceived accentedness. In contrast, more proficient L2 speakers were consistently perceived as more comprehensible in the L1, regardless of prior overseas experience. Acoustic analyses indicated that perceived accentedness is associated with a clockwise chain shift of all vowel categories in the vowel space. It was also revealed that the dispersion, rather than compactness, of vowel production contributed to perceived comprehensibility, although the degree of L1 vowel dispersion did not predict L2 proficiency. Conclusions The overall results suggest two main conclusions. First, perceptible L1 foreign accent likely results from L1 disuse rather than L2 interference, thereby L1 pronunciation differs from native norms at a system-wide rather than category-specific level. Second, L2 learning has a positive influence on perceived L1 comprehensibility, rather than individuals with clearer and more comprehensible L1 speech being inherently better L2 learners.

For common diseases such as lung cancer, patients often use the internet to obtain medical information. As a result of advances in artificial intelligence and large language models such as ChatGPT, patients and health professionals use these tools to obtain medical information. The aim of this study was to evaluate the readability of ChatGPT-generated responses with different readability scales in the context of lung cancer. The most common questions in the lung cancer section of Medscape® were reviewed, and questions on the definition, etiology, risk factors, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of lung cancer (both NSCLC and SCLC) were selected. A set of 80 questions were asked 10 times to ChatGPT via the OpenAI API. ChatGPT's responses were tested using various readability formulas. The mean Flesch Reading Ease, Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level, Gunning FOG Scale, SMOG Index, Automated Readability Index, Coleman-Liau Index, Linsear Write Formula, Dale-Chall Readability Score, and Spache Readability Formula scores are at a moderate level (mean and standard deviation: 40.52 ± 9.81, 12.56 ± 1.66, 13.63 ± 1.54, 14.61 ± 1.45, 15.04 ± 1.97, 14.24 ± 1.90, 11.96 ± 2.55, 10.03 ± 0.63 and 5.93 ± 0.50, respectively). The readability levels of the answers generated by ChatGPT are "collage" and above and are difficult to read. Perhaps in the near future, the ChatGPT can be programmed to produce responses that are appropriate for people of different educational and age groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Listening comprehension serves as a basic means for communication and participation in society. Unfortunately, especially low-performing students have difficulties understanding informational content presented in a listening format, even more so than with the comprehension of printed texts. Based on empirical findings that text features, such as global text cohesion, have proven to be effective for promoting reading comprehension, and cognitive processes of reading and listening to academic texts share commonalities, the question arises as to how much global cohesion can support students' listening comprehension. 140 ninth-grade students in German secondary schools listened to one of two informational listening texts which differed in their degree of global text cohesion (low vs. high in cohesion). Listening comprehension was assessed with a written test after listening. Regression analyses show that global text cohesion promotes listening comprehension and that the effect of cohesion remains significant and stable when controlling for topic-related prior knowledge and language-related background variables. Low-performing students profited more from the highly cohesive text than high-performing students. Thus, cohesion contributes to the comprehensibility of informational listening texts which can have implications for the construction of listening texts and listening comprehension instruction at school. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the target groups of Easy Language, a comprehensibility enhanced variety of a natural language, are migrants who have difficulties with the standard language of the host country. However, regarding French Easy Language, evidence-based linguistic criteria are lacking. Therefore, the present study aims at elaborating suitable linguistic criteria for French Easy Language intended for low-literate migrants. We asked 87 migrants in France to read four texts, two original and two rewritten according to specific criteria, and to answer several comprehension questions presented in a questionnaire. The score of correctly answered questions is significantly higher in the case of the rewritten texts. The article discusses the implications of this result in the context of Easy Language research and gives an outlook on current research desiderata. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Machine learning models built on behavioral and textual data can result in highly accurate prediction models, but are often very difficult to interpret. Linear models require investigating thousands of coefficients, while the opaqueness of nonlinear models makes things worse. Rule-extraction techniques have been proposed to combine the desired predictive accuracy of complex "black-box" models with global explainability. However, rule-extraction in the context of high-dimensional, sparse data, where many features are relevant to the predictions, can be challenging, as replacing the black-box model by many rules leaves the user again with an incomprehensible explanation. To address this problem, we develop and test a rule-extraction methodology based on higher-level, less-sparse "metafeatures". We empirically validate the quality of the explanation rules in terms of fidelity, stability, and accuracy over a collection of data sets, and benchmark their performance against rules extracted using the fine-grained behavioral and textual features. A key finding of our analysis is that metafeatures-based explanations are better at mimicking the behavior of the black-box prediction model, as measured by the fidelity of explanations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This case study aims to recognize and address pronunciation and listening comprehension challenges encountered by a Russian-speaking student during individual English instruction. The focal point of this investigation is a 35-year-old female learner operating at the A1/A2 proficiency levels according to CEFR. More specifically, data were collected through a closed-type questionnaire and two observation grids based on two lessons on pronunciation and listening comprehension, respectively, which had been designed to address the learner's weaknesses. The results of the research, which derive from the lessons, the questionnaire and the observation grids, demonstrate that the learner encountered difficulties in both articulating specific English phonemes, which do not exist in her native language, and in her self-assurance to engage in spoken communication as well as effectively execute listening comprehension tasks. Through the implementation of the listening lesson, which included non-native English speakers' (NNSs) discourse, the subject gradually realized the crucial role of speakers' intelligible and comprehensible message over native-like English accents. Following the lessons, the student experienced an enhanced sense of ease in comprehending and articulating oral discourse in English, attributed to a diminished apprehension regarding potential negative comments either because she had not fully understood the speakers' message or because she had not approximated a native-like English accent. After her exposure to NNSs distinctive accents, the subject decided to try to use English more actively in her daily life, whenever an opportunity arises, as she mentioned during the observations of the lesson. Lastly, as the subject reported, she tried to alleviate her anxiety when listening to NNSs speech and ultimately, she built confidence on using her distinctive accent when conversing in English. Such findings offer fruitful ground for integrating ELF in the EFL classroom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study is to analyze the quality, reliability, comprehensibility, and the mentioned medical concepts of traumatic brain injury (TBI) related videos on YouTube. "Traumatic brain injury (TBI)" and Google Trends related queries were used, and 328 videos were included. Categorization, quality assessment via a 5-point Global Quality Scale, reliability evaluation using a modified DISCERN scale, comprehensibility assessment using Flesch–Kincaid Reading Ease and Flesch–Kincaid Grade Level, and consensus-based classification for usefulness were performed. Target audience categorization was content-based. Text mining techniques were used to identify biomedical terms in video transcripts. Most of the videos were intended for nonhealthcare professionals and deemed useful. The videos had intermediate quality and a moderate level of reliability. The comprehensibility of the videos exceeded the recommended levels. Videos predominantly covered TBI symptoms, the severity of the condition, its impact on individuals, and possibly strategies related to diagnosis and treatment. Results suggest the requirement for higher quality and reliability in YouTube content about TBI. Emphasis should be placed on clear and accurate language to promote comprehensibility. Continued research, guidelines, education, and platform oversight can enhance the spread of reliable health information on social media, benefiting creators, and consumers in this field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined the naturalistic pronunciation development of two groups of L2 speakers over 10 years. Initially, 50 beginner ESL students participated in production tasks; despite attrition, the tasks were administered eight more times. Here we report listener judgements of accentedness, comprehensibility and fluency for the remaining six Mandarin and 12 Slavic language speakers at Year 10. Analyses of listener judgments of accentedness, comprehensibility, and fluency of utterances recorded at the 2-month, 1-year, 2-year, 7-year and 10-year points revealed that the Slavic language speakers improved in comprehensibility and fluency at each comparison point, while the Mandarin speakers' results were variable; there was improvement in comprehensibility from Year 7 to Year 10, but only after worsening at earlier points. The Slavic language group showed improvement in accentedness several times, whereas the Mandarin group showed no improvement in accentedness at any point. The data were examined for individual differences in learning trajectories. Interview responses and a survey of language use were compared to participants' trajectories. Some speakers showed steady improvement from Year 7 to Year 10, but the majority plateaued or regressed. We also elicited speakers' views of their progress. The results are interpreted through Complexity Theory and the Willingness to Communicate framework. Suggestions are made for research and teaching interventions. Nous avons examiné longitudinalement le développement en contexte naturel de la prononciation en anglais L2 chez deux groupes de locuteurs: mandarin (LMA) et langues slaves (LSL). Au départ, les 50 participants ont réalisé les tâches de production, qui leur ont été passées huit fois de plus, sur une période de dix ans. Nous rapportons ici les jugements sur l'accentuation, la compréhensibilité et la fluidité des locuteurs restant à la 10e année, après attrition au sein des deux groupes (LMA n = 6; LSL n = 12). Les données collectées aux années sept et 10 ont révélé que les LSL ont amélioré leur intelligibilité et leur fluidité à chaque point de comparaison, tandis que les LMA présentaient une variabilité: une amélioration de la compréhensibilité de la 7e à la 10e année, après une détérioration lors de points de comparaisons précédents. Les LSL ont démontré une amélioration de l'accent à plusieurs reprises, tandis que les LMA n'en ont montré aucune dans le temps. Les données ont été examinées pour déterminer des différences individuelles. Les réponses aux entretiens et une enquête sur l'utilisation de la langue ont été comparées aux trajectoires des participants. Une amélioration constante a été observée de la 7e à la 10e année chez certains locuteurs, mais la majorité d'entre eux a plafonné ou encore régressé. Nous avons également sollicité l'avis des locuteurs sur leurs progrès. Ces résultats sont interprétés dans le cadre de « la volonté de communiquer ». Des suggestions sont offertes pour la recherche et les interventions pédagogiques. This longitudinal study involved collecting data from two groups of second language speakers (Mandarin and Slavic language speakers) over 10 years. We recorded picture narratives from the 2-month, 1-year, 2-year, 7-year, and 10-year points. Audio samples of 20–25 s were randomized and played to 20 listeners who rated them on three dimensions using 9-point scales: fluency (1 = extremely fluent; 9 = extremely dysfluent); comprehensibility (1 = easy to understand; 9 = extremely difficult to understand); and accentedness (1 = no accent; 9 = extremely strong accent). Analyses indicated that the Slavic language speakers improved in comprehensibility and fluency at each comparison point, while the Mandarin speakers' results were variable: there was improvement in comprehensibility from Year 7 to Year 10, but only after worsening at earlier points. The Slavic language group showed improvement in accentedness at several times, whereas the Mandarin group showed no improvement in accentedness at any point. We then considered individual trajectories, in the light of the language contexts in which each participant was immersed. There was tremendous variability in learner progress, but interestingly, the person who had the best ratings at the outset was judged the best after 10 years. It is clear that each person's individual circumstances had an effect on their productions in English. The trajectories also suggested that some individuals made consistent progress in comprehensibility and fluency from Year 7 to Year 10, demonstrating that naturalistic language learning, at least for these dimensions, can continue for a long time, depending on the individual's personal circumstances. The richer the interaction opportunities, the better. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mental imagery (MI) is a psychological technique traditionally applied outside exercise contexts. However, recent studies indicate its potential benefits during physical activity, particularly for enhancing positive emotions and self-regulation of exercise behavior. While existing questionnaires capture aspects of MI regarding the exercise, none are specifically designed to evaluate MI during training. Therefore, it is necessary to create a new questionnaire. Establishing its content validity (CV) is the initial step in this process. Despite its importance for subsequent validity assessments and the reliability of the measurement instrument, CV is often overlooked or superficially addressed, possibly owing to a lack of comprehensive guidelines. In response to these needs, the aim of this study was to develop the "Imagery during Exercise Questionnaire-Gym Version" (IdEQ-GV) to assess the functions of MI during exercise and to measure its CV. This study also provides a step-by-step presentation of the content validation process. The development of the IdEQ-GV involved instrument design and judgmental evidence from academic experts and lay experts (i.e., potential research subjects). The first version of the questionnaire, consisting of 34 items across 6 dimensions, was assessed by three content experts who evaluated its CV in terms of relevance, essentiality, clarity, and comprehensiveness and provided feedback. The second version, comprising 28 items across 5 dimensions, was re-evaluated by content experts and discussed in cognitive interviews with 13 gym members, who also provided feedback and scores regarding comprehensibility and comprehensiveness. After making the necessary modifications, the third version of the IdEQ-GV, containing 24 items, was evaluated by a new sample of 20 exercisers for comprehensibility. The methods used to quantify CV included the content validity index (CVI), the scale-level CVI (S-CVI), which comprises the average CVI (S-CVI/Ave) and universal agreement (UA) among experts (S-CVI/UA), and the content validity ratio (CVR). The IdEQ-GV was found to have an excellent CV regarding relevance, with an S-CVI/UA of 1.00. For clarity, the S-CVI/Ave was 0.95. For essentiality, the average CVR of the scale was 0.83. For comprehensiveness, according to the content experts' scores, the S-CVI/Ave was 0.93, while the first sample of exercisers gave it a perfect score. Regarding comprehensibility, the final sample of exercisers rated the SCVI/Ave at 0.93. Through this analytical process, it has been established that the IdEQ-GV has excellent content validity and is now ready for widespread distribution to establish additional psychometric properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has shown that speakers' visual appearance influences listeners' perception of second language (L2) speech. In Québec, Canada, the context of this study, pandemic mask mandates and a provincial secularism law elicited strong societal reactions. We therefore examined how images of speakers wearing religious and nonreligious coverings such as medical masks and headscarves influenced the comprehensibility (listeners' ease of understanding) and intelligibility of L2 French speech. Four L2 French women from first language (L1) Arabic backgrounds wore surgical masks while recording 40 sentences from a standardized French-language speech perception test. A total of 104 L1 French listeners transcribed and rated the comprehensibility of the sentences, paired with images of women in four visual conditions: uncovered face, medical mask, hijab (headscarf), and niqab (religious face covering). Listeners also completed a questionnaire on attitudes toward immigrants, cultural values, and secularism. Although intelligibility was high, sentences in the medical mask condition were significantly more intelligible and more comprehensible than those in the niqab condition. Several attitudinal measures showed weak correlations with intelligibility or comprehensibility in several visual conditions. The results suggest that listeners' understanding of L2 sentences was negatively affected by images showing speakers' religious affiliation, but more extensive follow-up studies are recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background There is an increasing interest in cross-linguistic influences of the second language (L2) on the first (L1), but its communicative impact remains to be elucidated. This study investigates how L2 learners’ L1 pronunciation is perceived as foreign-accented and (in) comprehensible as a function of their L2 learning experience and proficiency levels. Methods Read speech of 154 L1 Japanese learners of L2 English in the J-AESOP corpus was examined, where approximately one-third of them had lived in English-speaking countries and the rest had never lived outside of Japan. Their L1 speech was rated by another group of native Japanese listeners for accentedness and comprehensibility (from October 25, 2022 to August 20, 2023), while their L2 speech was previously rated by native American English listeners for nativelikeness or proficiency. The speakers’ vowel acoustics were also examined. Results More proficient L2 speakers were perceived as more foreign-accented in their L1, but only if they had lived overseas; their length of residence abroad predicted the degree of perceived accentedness. In contrast, more proficient L2 speakers were consistently perceived as more comprehensible in the L1, regardless of prior overseas experience. Acoustic analyses indicated that perceived accentedness is associated with a clockwise chain shift of all vowel categories in the vowel space. It was also revealed that the dispersion, rather than compactness, of vowel production contributed to perceived comprehensibility, although the degree of L1 vowel dispersion did not predict L2 proficiency. Conclusions The overall results suggest two main conclusions. First, perceptible L1 foreign accent likely results from L1 disuse rather than L2 interference, thereby L1 pronunciation differs from native norms at a system-wide rather than category-specific level. Second, L2 learning has a positive influence on perceived L1 comprehensibility, rather than individuals with clearer and more comprehensible L1 speech being inherently better L2 learners.

The study of complex process models often encounters challenges in terms of comprehensibility. This paper explores using modularization as a strategy to mitigate such challenges, notably the reduction in complexity. Previous research has delved into the comprehensibility of modularized process models, yet an unresolved question about the cognitive factors at play during their comprehension still needs to be answered. Addressing the latter, the paper presents findings from an innovative study combining eye-tracking and concurrent think-aloud techniques involving 25 participants. The study aimed to comprehend how individuals comprehend process models when presented in three different modular formats: flattened process models, models with grouped elements, and models with subprocesses. The results shed light on varying comprehension strategies employed by participants when navigating through these modularized process models. The paper concludes by suggesting avenues for future research guided by these insights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This controlled experimental study investigated the interaction of variables associated with rating the pronunciation component of high-stakes English-language-speaking tests such as IELTS and TOEFL iBT. One hundred experienced raters who were all either familiar or unfamiliar with Brazilian-accented English or Papua New Guinean Tok Pisin-accented English, respectively, were presented with speech samples in audio-only or audio-visual mode. Two-way ordinal regression with post hoc pairwise comparisons found that the presentation mode interacted significantly with accent familiarity to increase comprehensibility ratings (χ² = 88.005, df = 3, p <.0001), with presentation mode having a stronger effect in the interaction than accent familiarity (χ² = 59.328, df = 1, p <.0001). Based on odds ratios, raters were significantly more likely to score comprehensibility higher when the presentation mode was audio-visual (compared to audio-only) for both the unfamiliar (91% more likely) and familiar speakers (92.3% more likely). The results suggest that semi-direct speaking tests using audio-only or audio-visual modes of presentation should be evaluated through research to ascertain how accent familiarity and presentation mode interact to variably affect comprehensibility ratings. Such research may be beneficial to investigate the virtual modes of speaking test delivery that have emerged post-COVID-19. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The extrapolation of test scores to a target domain—that is, association between test performances and relevant real-world outcomes—is critical to valid score interpretation and use. This study examined the relationship between Duolingo English Test (DET) speaking scores and university stakeholders' evaluation of DET speaking performances. A total of 190 university stakeholders (45 faculty members, 39 administrative staff, 53 graduate students, 53 undergraduate students) evaluated the comprehensibility (ease of understanding) and academic acceptability of 100 DET test-takers' speaking performances. Academic acceptability was judged based on speakers' suitability for communicative roles in the university context including undergraduate study, group work in courses, graduate study, and teaching. Analyses indicated a large correlation between aggregate measures of comprehensibility and acceptability (r =.98). Acceptability ratings varied according to role: acceptability for teaching was held to a notably higher standard than acceptability for undergraduate study. Stakeholder groups also differed in their ratings, with faculty tending to be more lenient in their ratings of comprehensibility and acceptability than undergraduate students and staff. Finally, both comprehensibility and acceptability measures correlated strongly with speakers' official DET scores and subscores (r ⩾.74–.89), providing some support for the extrapolation of DET scores to academic contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Making accounting and financial information in the public sector easier to understand can encourage citizens to closely scrutinize government actions, which can be accomplished through more attractive and understandable accounting reports. In this sense, the main objective of this research was to identify the essential information needed to compose the structure of Popular Financial Reporting - PFR (or Popular Financial Report), to improve the comprehensibility of accounting information in the public sector. Therefore, methodologically, a qualitative approach was used through a non-probabilistic sample of studies that dealt with the theme. With the results, it was possible to verify, through the studied literature, that the structure suggested for the PFR presents two basic characteristics: formal characteristics and characteristics of the content. Formal characteristics refer to the structure of the report, including an attractive visual presentation, an accessible format, periodic publication, and a concise and illustrative report. The characteristics of the content are related to the textual part, including an initial context, essential information, and complementary information. Thus, the research contributes to the academy, managers, and public accountants by bringing a discussion about the PFR and a presentation of a proposed structure that can improve the comprehensibility of accounting information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholars have argued that comprehensibility (i.e., ease of understanding), not nativelike performance, should be prioritized in second language learning, which inspired numerous studies to explore factors affecting comprehensibility. However, most of these studies did not consider potential interaction effects of these factors, resulting in a limited understanding of comprehensibility and less precise implications. This study investigates how pronunciation and lexicogrammar influences the comprehensibility of Mandarin-accented English. A total of 687 listeners were randomly allocated into six groups and rated (a) one baseline and (b) one of six experimental recordings for comprehensibility on a 9-point scale. The baseline recording, a 60 s spontaneous speech by an L1 English speaker with an American accent, was the same across groups. The six 75-s experimental recordings were the same in content but differed in (a) speakers' degree of foreign accent (American, moderate Mandarin, and heavy Mandarin) and (b) lexicogrammar (with errors vs. without errors). The study found that pronunciation and lexicogrammar interacted to influence comprehensibility. That is, whether pronunciation affected comprehensibility depended on speakers' lexicogrammar, and vice versa. The results have implications for theory-building to refine comprehensibility, as well as for pedagogy and testing priorities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Route Educational & Social Science Journal (Ress Journal) is the property of Ress Academy Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This research paper addresses the challenge of providing effective feedback on spontaneous speech produced by second language (L2) English learners. As the position of pauses and lexical stress is often considered a determinative factor for easy comprehension by listeners, an automated pipeline is introduced to analyze the position of pauses in speech, the lexical stress patterns of polysyllabic content words, and the degree of prosodic contrast between stressed and unstressed syllables, on the basis of F0, intensity, and duration measures. The pipeline is applied to 11 h of spontaneous speech from 176 French students with B1 and B2 proficiency levels. It appeared that B1 students make more pauses within phrases and less pauses between clauses than B2 speakers, with a large diversity among speakers at both proficiency levels. Overall, lexical stress is correctly placed in only 35.4% of instances, with B2 students achieving a significantly higher score (36%) than B1 students (29.6%). However, great variation among speakers is also observed, ranging from 0% to 68% in stress position accuracy. Stress typically falls on the last syllable regardless of the prosodic expectations, with the strong influence of syllable duration. Only proficient speakers show substantial F0 and intensity contrasts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Mediterranean Educational Research Journal / Akdeniz Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi is the property of Turkish Educational Research Association (TERA) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This study investigates the impact of segmental accuracy and nucleus placement on the comprehensibility of English as an International Language (EIL), with the aim of informing phonological norms and teaching models. Speech samples from 59 EIL speakers with varying levels of segmental accuracy were collected during a reading task, involving reading a passage in three different versions of speech, each version lasting approximately 30 to 40 s. To directly compare the impact of nuclear stress placement on comprehensibility, based on these samples, two versions of stimuli were created, each differing only in their placement of nuclear stress — either correct or incorrect. The correctness of placements was determined by seven native speakers of English. Eight native English speakers, aged 19–24, and eight EIL speakers, aged 20–24 with an upper-intermediate to advanced proficiency level, rated the comprehensibility of the two versions of speech. Results suggest that while correct nucleus placement enhances comprehensibility for native English listeners, it has little influence on EIL listeners. Segmental accuracy in EIL speech impacts comprehensibility substantially more than nucleus placement on both native and EIL listeners, indicating that English language teaching should focus on minimizing segmental errors to improve comprehensibility for EIL speakers, despite the benefits of correct nucleus placement.

This study is an extension of Inceoglu et al.’s (2023) study on Google Voice Typing as a pronunciation learning tool. We used the Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) tool on the dictation.io website (Agarwal, 2022), and our participants were L2 English learners of a different L1, but similar proficiency level. Twelve L1 English listeners assessed the L2 English from four L1 French speakers in terms of intelligibility and comprehensibility, measured by word transcription and Likert scale ratings respectively. Their scores were compared to ASR output. The goal was to determine how accurate the tool is, and to what extent its accuracy correlates with human listeners. The results were generally consistent with those of Inceoglu et al. (2023), with few exceptions which we discuss in the current study.

Background and Objectives: Although Machine Translation (MT) is extensively researched within the field of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and translation studies, few studies have attempted to implement MT output in foreign language teaching (FLT). One potential aspect of using MT in FLT refers to the implementation of MT output for reading comprehension. Considering the existing gap in the body of research on this issue, the present study aimed to investigate whether MT output is qualified enough to be used as an aid in EAP reading comprehension courses. More specifically, this study intended to benchmark the efficacy of MT output for EAP reading comprehension courses based on the data obtained from testing its comprehensibility and probing the students’ perceptions. To achieve the objectives of the study, MT was operationally defined as quality assessment in terms of output efficacy, a combination of usability and comprehensibility, which mirrors the ultimate goal of MT use in EAP reading comprehension courses, from the users' or target readers’ standpoint. Within this perspective, the current research was an attempt to assess the quality of MT output in terms of comprehensibility and the degree to which MT output might be comprehensible to the EAP students participating in this study.Materials and Methods: The participants of the study, 140 Iranian undergraduate university students majoring in the field of education at Farhangian University, Iran, were selected based on simple random sampling. Oxford Quick Placement Test was used to homogenize them in terms of English proficiency. Two versions of a reliable reading comprehension test, human translation (HT) and Machine Translation (MT), were given to. This test included 25 multiple-choice items, assessing the participants' literal comprehension of information stated in the passage as well as higher-order comprehension that required making inferences and conclusions. In particular, the items measured textual coherence, inference, reference, scanning, skimming, and word-meaning inference. To test the reliability of the tests, the KR-21 formula was applied and the results showed that both HT test (.83) and MT test (.78) were reliable. To investigate the perceptions of the participants on the efficacy of the MT output they encountered on the test, semi-structured interviews were conducted with some of the participants in Persian. Findings: With reference to the results of non-parametric tests such as Spearman’s rho, and Mann-Whitney Tests, and considering the observed effect sizes (Cohen’s d), it was revealed that, generally, the efficacy of MT output is comparable to that of HT. Moreover, in terms of reading comprehension sub-skills, the qualities of the two translations were comparable with regard to scanning, and inference, but not skimming and reference. Furthermore, the findings from the interview indicated that the students perceive MT to be a seminal aid for their EAP reading comprehension activities despite the minor problems that exist in the output such as morpho-syntactic errors or inappropriate lexical equivalents.Conclusions: The present study confirmed the fact that the efficacy of MT output is target-reader-dependent and text-dependent since it is determined both by the characteristics of the readers, such as their disciplines, and text features, as demonstrated by the significant differences in comprehension levels of the same readers measured by the same questions for HT and MT output. Accordingly, this study shed limelight on comprehensibility as a criterion of MT output efficacy; that is to say, it has to be reminded that MT quality needs to be defined as a context-bound and target-reader-specific concept.

This paper considers the transfer of approaches from the field of to the field of to be used in decision support systems. The most relevant of the developed approaches will be roughly introduced and it will be considered how these approaches can be applied in medical informatics in the context of decision support systems. Moreover, it will be considered which of the approaches are eligible in this context. Apart from placing the approaches in the context of decision support systems, the paper thereby also provides an example for the interplay of different fields of research.

Towards a visual verdict? The effect of visual features on the comprehensibility of a court ruling: We investigated whether a written court ruling printed on paper, as published on www.rechtspraak.nl and written and rewritten in understandable language, is better understood by non-litigant readers with no legal education if visual features (such as typography, images and color blocks) are added to that ruling. First an existing court ruling (V1) was rewritten in understandable language. Then two visual versions of this rewritten ruling were developed. In one version (V2a) the structure of the text was made visual using typography. In the other version (V2b) images, icons and color (blocks) were added to V2a. These versions were tested for understandability and compared with the original version (V1) by means of a questionnaire survey amongst 219 readers with varying levels of education who answered questions regarding the text comprehension of one of the three versions. Analysis of the results shows that the visual version V2a is the most understandable for the non-highly educated group: it was this version that received significantly more correct answers than the original (V1). Regarding the highly educated group, there were no significant differences in the number of correct answers among the three versions: each version was understood (equally) well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the divergences between self-assessments of comprehensibility, accentedness and fluency skills from a group of 40 speakers of Spanish as L2, and the scores they receive from two groups of native raters: 109 novice non teacher raters and 42 expert teacher (Spanish as L2) raters. The purpose of the experiment is to analyze the differences between these evaluations considering the speakers' performance levels, since several studies have shown that participants with lower proficiency tend to overestimate their ability, while those at the top of the scale tend to underestimate it (vid. Kruger & Dunning, 1999). This effect, known as the "Dunning-Kruger effect," is relevant to understand to what extent the learners' self-assessment of these three dimensions corresponds to the assessment of the native speakers with whom they regularly interact both inside and outside the classroom. While the results do confirm that the speakers with poorer performance overestimated themselves, and those who were graded higher underestimated themselves, the raters' experience is relevant in determining the statistical significance of the differences and effect sizes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the study was to examine the efficacy of lexical stress diacritics on the English comprehensibility and accentedness of Korean speakers. To this end, 30 native Korean participants read aloud 15 English sentences without diacritics in the pretest. Then, they were given explicit instructions on the production of higher pitch and extended duration as a marker of English stress with musical notation provided. In the posttest, the participants read aloud the same sentences as were in the pretest but which had diacritics indicating stress placement. In the delayed posttest, two days after the pretest and the posttest, the participants read 15 sentences without diacritics again to see if the effects of the treatment were retained. Randomized speech samples were rated by three native speakers of English in relation to comprehensibility and accentedness. Findings showed that significant improvements were observed after the treatment in both comprehensibility and accentedness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the impact of listeners' dialectal variations within the same L1 on perceptions of L2 speech comprehensibility and accentedness. Thirty untrained British and American English-L1 raters assessed recorded L2 speech samples from 29 Finnish learners of English and provided scalar judgments for their comprehensibility and accentedness. Four linguistically trained graduate students evaluated the samples for segmental accuracy, speech rate, word stress and intonation. Results of linear mixed models indicated no significant effect of raters' L1 variety on global comprehensibility and accentedness ratings. While American and British raters relied on same pronunciation features in their comprehensibility judgments, they placed different levels of importance on pronunciation features when making accentedness judgments. Particularly, both groups primarily exhibited sensitivity towards segmental errors in their assessments of accentedness, whereas American raters demonstrated an additional sensitivity to intonation. The findings underscore the complexity of accent perception based on the L1 variety of listeners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of IUL Research is the property of IUL - Universita Telematica degli Studi and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Purpose: To investigate the comprehensibility of the information disclosed through accounting reports from the Brazilian public sector by comparing the model mandatory disclosure with alternate disclosures from the popular reporting perspective. Method: Experimental research was used as a methodology and it was done based on scenarios with the use of a control group and three treatment groups, which encompassed the manipulation of the technical language knowledge variables and the differentiated layout based on popular reporting. Results and discussions: This paper pointed that the citizens who have no technical language knowledge but who had access to accounting information released by popular reporting know more about the accounting information disclosed by the public sector than the citizens who have technical knowledge and had access to accounting statements traditionally highlighted. Therefore, it is possible to conclude that the differentiated layout, based on popular reporting precepts, is able to overcome the lack of technical knowledge of the majority of users of the accounting information disclosed by the public sector. Contributions: Analyzing the Brazilian experience on the understandability of accounting information disclosed by the public sector from the comparison between experimental groups, this paper finds evidence that alternative ways of presenting the accounting reports disclosed by the public sector, from the use of a model based on popular reporting, overcome the lack of knowledge of technical terms used by accounting, improving the understanding of users. These findings contribute to improving the process of accountability and transparency of the accounting information disclosed by the Brazilian public sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In murder and attempted murder cases, the information provided by the autopsy report or personal examination report and the evidence given in court by forensic pathologists are often essential for the legal outcome. These reports written by forensic pathologists contain very specialized language; however, when used in connection with legal cases, the target audience also comprises non-experts in medicine such as the police, lawyers, judges, jury members and lay judges. Therefore, the reports must be comprehensible to this lay audience. This study investigates the language of 15 written autopsy reports and personal examination reports used in court with the aim of identifying potentially incomprehensible linguistic features or features which make the reports unnecessarily complex to laymen. Results show that many linguistic elements both at word, sentence and text level can be changed to more lay-friendly options without loss of precision. We discuss best practice recommendations as well as potential barriers to implementing these recommendations in practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: Although Machine Translation (MT) is extensively researched within the field of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and translation studies, few studies have attempted to implement MT output in foreign language teaching (FLT). One potential aspect of using MT in FLT refers to the implementation of MT output for reading comprehension. Considering the existing gap in the body of research on this issue, the present study aimed to investigate whether MT output is qualified enough to be used as an aid in EAP reading comprehension courses. More specifically, this study intended to benchmark the efficacy of MT output for EAP reading comprehension courses based on the data obtained from testing its comprehensibility and probing the students' perceptions. To achieve the objectives of the study, MT was operationally defined as quality assessment in terms of output efficacy, a combination of usability and comprehensibility, which mirrors the ultimate goal of MT use in EAP reading comprehension courses, from the users' or target readers' standpoint. Within this perspective, the current research was an attempt to assess the quality of MT output in terms of comprehensibility and the degree to which MT output might be comprehensible to the EAP students participating in this study. Materials and Methods: The participants of the study, 140 Iranian undergraduate university students majoring in the field of education at Farhangian University, Iran, were selected based on simple random sampling. Oxford Quick Placement Test was used to homogenize them in terms of English proficiency. Two versions of a reliable reading comprehension test, human translation (HT) and Machine Translation (MT), were given to. This test included 25 multiple-choice items, assessing the participants' literal comprehension of information stated in the passage as well as higher-order comprehension that required making inferences and conclusions. In particular, the items measured textual coherence, inference, reference, scanning, skimming, and word-meaning inference. To test the reliability of the tests, the KR21 formula was applied and the results showed that both HT test (.83) and MT test (.78) were reliable. To investigate the perceptions of the participants on the efficacy of the MT output they encountered on the test, semi-structured interviews were conducted with some of the participants in Persian. Findings: With reference to the results of non-parametric tests such as Spearman's rho, and MannWhitney Tests, and considering the observed effect sizes (Cohen's d), it was revealed that, generally, the efficacy of MT output is comparable to that of HT. Moreover, in terms of reading comprehension subskills, the qualities of the two translations were comparable with regard to scanning, and inference, but not skimming and reference. Furthermore, the findings from the interview indicated that the students perceive MT to be a seminal aid for their EAP reading comprehension activities despite the minor problems that exist in the output such as morpho-syntactic errors or inappropriate lexical equivalents. Conclusions: The present study confirmed the fact that the efficacy of MT output is target-readerdependent and text-dependent since it is determined both by the characteristics of the readers, such as their disciplines, and text features, as demonstrated by the significant differences in comprehension levels of the same readers measured by the same questions for HT and MT output. Accordingly, this study shed limelight on comprehensibility as a criterion of MT output efficacy; that is to say, it has to be reminded that MT quality needs to be defined as a context-bound and target-reader-specific concept. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we explore the possibility of evaluating L2 pronunciation, and, more specifically, L2 vowels, without referring to a native model, i.e., intrinsically. Instead of comparing L2 vowel productions to native speakers' productions, we use Pillai scores to measure the overlap between target vowel categories in L2 English (/iː/ — /ɪ/, /ɑː/ — /æ/, /ɜː/ — /ʌ/, /uː/ — /ʊ/) for L1 French, L1 Spanish, and L1 Italian learners (n = 40); and in L2 French (/y/ — /u/, /ø/ — /o/, /ø/ — /e/, / ɛ ˜ / — /e /, / ɑ ˜ / — /a/, / ɔ ˜ / — /o/) for L1 English, L1 Spanish, and L1 Italian learners (n = 48). We assume that a greater amount of overlap within a contrast indicates assimilated categories in a learner's production, whereas a smaller amount of overlap indicates the establishment of phonological categories and distinct realisations for members of the contrast. Pillai scores were significant predictors of native ratings of comprehensibility and/or nativelikeness for many of the contrasts considered. Despite some limitations and caveats, we argue that Pillai scores and similar methods for the intrinsic evaluation of L2 pronunciation can be used, (i) to avoid direct comparisons of L2 users' performance with native monolinguals, following recent trends in SLA research; (ii) when comparable L1 data are not available; (iii) within longitudinal studies to track the progressive development of new phonological categories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]