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The notable increase in retraction papers has attracted considerable attention from diverse stakeholders. Various sources are now offering information related to research integrity, including concerns voiced on social media, disclosed lists of paper mills, and retraction notices accessible through journal websites. However, despite the availability of such resources, there remains a lack of a unified platform to consolidate this information, thereby hindering efficient searching and cross-referencing. Thus, it is imperative to develop a comprehensive platform for retracted papers and related concerns. This article aims to introduce "Amend," a platform designed to integrate information on research integrity from diverse sources. The Amend platform consolidates concerns and lists of problematic articles sourced from social media platforms (e.g., PubPeer, For Better Science), retraction notices from journal websites, and citation databases (e.g., Web of Science, CrossRef). Moreover, Amend includes investigation and punishment announcements released by administrative agencies (e.g., NSFC, MOE, MOST, CAS). Each related paper is marked and can be traced back to its information source via a provided link. Furthermore, the Amend database incorporates various attributes of retracted articles, including citation topics, funding details, open access status, and more. The reasons for retraction are identified and classified as either academic misconduct or honest errors, with detailed subcategories provided for further clarity. Within the Amend platform, a total of 32,515 retracted papers indexed in SCI, SSCI, and ESCI between 1980 and 2023 were identified. Of these, 26,620 (81.87%) were associated with academic misconduct. The retraction rate stands at 6.64 per 10,000 articles. Notably, the retraction rate for non-gold open access articles significantly differs from that for gold open access articles, with this disparity progressively widening over the years. Furthermore, the reasons for retractions have shifted from traditional individual behaviors like falsification, fabrication, plagiarism, and duplication to more organized large-scale fraudulent practices, including Paper Mills, Fake Peer-review, and Artificial Intelligence Generated Content (AIGC). The Amend platform may not fully capture all retracted and concerning papers, thereby impacting its comprehensiveness. Additionally, inaccuracies in retraction notices may lead to errors in tagged reasons. Amend provides an integrated platform for stakeholders to enhance monitoring, analysis, and research on academic misconduct issues. Ultimately, the Amend database can contribute to upholding scientific integrity. This study introduces a globally integrated platform for retracted and concerning papers, along with a preliminary analysis of the evolutionary trends in retracted papers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Big data refers to extremely large data generated at high volume, velocity, variety, and veracity. The nurse scientist is uniquely positioned to leverage big data to suggest novel hypotheses on patient care and the healthcare system. The purpose of this paper is to provide an introductory guide to understanding the use and capability of big data for nurse scientists. Herein, we discuss the practical, ethical, social, and educational implications of using big data in nursing research. Some practical challenges with the use of big data include data accessibility, data quality, missing data, variable data standards, fragmentation of health data, and software considerations. Opposing ethical positions arise with the use of big data, and arguments for and against the use of big data are underpinned by concerns about confidentiality, anonymity, and autonomy. The use of big data has health equity dimensions and addressing equity in data is an ethical imperative. There is a need to incorporate competencies needed to leverage big data for nursing research into advanced nursing educational curricula. Nursing science has a great opportunity to evolve and embrace the potential of big data. Nurse scientists should not be spectators but collaborators and drivers of policy change to better leverage and harness the potential of big data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Electrónica Interuniversitaria De Formación del Profesorado is the property of Asociacion Universitaria de Formacion del Profesorado (AUFOP) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Purpose: The purpose of this survey was to create a list of essential historical and contemporary readings for undergraduate and graduate students in the field of exercise physiology. Methods: Fifty-two exercise physiologists/sport scientists served as referees, and each nominated ∼25 papers for inclusion in the list. In total, 396 papers were nominated by the referees. This list was then sent back to the referees, with the instructions to nominate the "100 essential papers in sports and exercise physiology." Results: The referees cast 4722 votes. The 100 papers with the highest number of votes received 51% (2406) of the total number of votes. A total of 37 papers in the list of "100 essential papers" were published >50 years ago, and 63 papers were published since 1973. Conclusions: This list of essential studies will provide a perspective on contemporary studies, the "giant's shoulders" to enable young scholars to "see further" or to understand where they have "come from." This compilation is also meant to impress on students that, given the (lack of) technology available in the past, some of the early science required enormous intuitive leaps on the part of historical scientists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Value co‐creation as a research topic has been a critical proposition of interest to a wide range of disciplines. In recent years, the field of cultural heritage has also developed a range of information practices to promote different forms of value co‐creation. While the body of literature has begun to accumulate, we still lack a comprehensive understanding of conceptual foundations and how value co‐creation is implemented in cultural heritage information practices. This paper conducted a hermeneutic literature review to understand and conceptualize the core aspects of value co‐creation in various cultural heritage information works. In particular, this paper provides a research mapping of the genres of co‐creation in cultural heritage information practices, the actors, and the roles played by the stakeholders. Further, this review provides an overview of the dominant value co‐creation models in the cultural heritage field. It distills the drivers of value co‐creation and the core value consequences that arise from a process perspective. Finally, this paper puts forward a thematic, theoretical, and methodological agenda for future work based on these findings. The review contributes to the literature by proposing an integrated conceptual framework that summarizes the core elements of value co‐creation in cultural heritage information practices. The framework also serves as a call for action, providing a general understanding of the conceptual foundation for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article provides a scoping review of 25 years of research on the notion of cognitive authority (CA), examining its conceptualization and empirical examination. The review follows the PRISMA statement and its extension for scoping reviews. Peer‐reviewed journal articles on CA were identified through database searching with the specific search term “cognitive authorit*” in the title or abstract and covering work published in 2022 or earlier. In total, 235 unique references were identified, and their abstracts and then selected full texts were screened according to predetermined exclusion criteria. In total, 40 articles were included in the review, extracted, and analyzed with qualitative content analysis focusing on the conceptualization of CA, the methodological approach taken to examine it, and the different spheres of knowledge and levels of activity the research addressed. Based on this analysis, four parallel lines of research were identified including studies conceptualizing CA: (1) as an indicator of information source quality, (2) as discursively constructed, (3) as situated in social mechanisms and settings, and (4) as institutional legitimacy of science and professions. This body of research has extended Wilson's (1983; Second‐hand knowledge: An inquiry into cognitive authority. Greenwood Press) original work contributing to our understanding of CA at individual, communal, and societal levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Open data as an integral part of the open science movement enhances the openness and sharing of scientific datasets. Nevertheless, the normative utilization of data journals, data papers, scientific datasets, and data citations necessitates further research. This study aims to investigate the citation practices associated with data papers and to explore the role of data papers in disseminating scientific datasets. Dataset accession numbers from NCBI databases were employed to analyze the prevalence of data citations for data papers from PubMed Central. A dataset citation practice identification rule was subsequently established. The findings indicate a consistent growth in the number of biomedical data journals published in recent years, with data papers gaining attention and recognition as both publications and data sources. Although the use of data papers as citation sources for data remains relatively rare, there has been a steady increase in data paper citations for data utilization through formal data citations. Furthermore, the increasing proportion of datasets reported in data papers that are employed for analytical purposes highlights the distinct value of data papers in facilitating the dissemination and reuse of datasets to support novel research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reviews have long been recognized as among the most important forms of scientific communication. The rapid growth of the primary literature has further increased the need for reviews to distill and interpret the literature. This review on Reviews and Reviewing: Approaches to Research Synthesis encompasses the evolution of the review literature, taxonomy of review literature, uses and users of reviews, the process of preparing reviews, assessment of review quality and impact, the impact of information technology on the preparation of reviews, and research opportunities for information science related to reviews and reviewing. In addition to providing a synthesis of prior research, this review seeks to identify gaps in the published research and to suggest possible future research directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plain abdominal radiographs and gastrointestinal contrast studies remain the first line of investigation for the evaluation of several conditions due to their easy availability and ease of use in pediatric patients. A systematic approach to evaluating the plain radiograph for pediatric abdomen can lead the radiologist to a relevant differential diagnosis in most cases. In other cases, it leads the radiologist to the next line of investigation. The plain radiograph of the abdomen is requested for several conditions ranging from abdominal pain, vomiting, failure to pass meconium, abdominal distension, perforation, mass or for suspected obstruction. The radiation dose involved in abdominal radiography, although significant, the diagnostic information provided outweighs the risk. Dose reduction techniques should be employed to reduce the radiation dose to infants and children. Spectrum of atresias and stenosis from the esophagus up to the rectum, Hirschsprung disease, small left colon syndrome, and anorectal malformations can be identified with a detailed and systematic contrast study. They act as an adjunct in the diagnosis of conditions such as intussusception and hypertrophic pyloric stenosis. Inflammatory conditions such as acute appendicitis, necrotizing enterocolitis, and acute conditions such as pneumoperitoneum are also well appreciated on plain abdominal radiographs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Information professionals have supported medical providers, administrators and decision-makers, and guideline creators in the COVID-19 response. Searching COVID-19 literature presented new challenges, including the volume and heterogeneity of literature and the proliferation of new information sources, and exposed existing issues in metadata and publishing. An expert panel developed best practices, including recommendations, elaborations, and examples, for searching during public health emergencies. Methods: Project directors and advisors developed core elements from experience and literature. Experts, identified by affiliation with evidence synthesis groups, COVID-19 search experience, and nomination, responded to an online survey to reach consensus on core elements. Expert participants provided written responses to guiding questions. A synthesis of responses provided the foundation for focus group discussions. A writing group then drafted the best practices into a statement. Experts reviewed the statement prior to dissemination. Results: Twelve information professionals contributed to best practice recommendations on six elements: core resources, search strategies, publication types, transparency and reproducibility, collaboration, and conducting research. Underlying principles across recommendations include timeliness, openness, balance, preparedness, and responsiveness. Conclusions: The authors and experts anticipate the recommendations for searching for evidence during public health emergencies will help information specialists, librarians, evidence synthesis groups, researchers, and decision-makers respond to future public health emergencies, including but not limited to disease outbreaks. The recommendations complement existing guidance by addressing concerns specific to emergency response. The statement is intended as a living document. Future revisions should solicit input from a broader community and reflect conclusions of meta-research on COVID-19 and health emergencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Editors rely on peer reviewers' comments and insight as they make decisions about submitted manuscripts. This article describes what reviewers need to consider when accepting a peer review assignment and the essential elements they should include in their peer review. What reviewers need to consider when accepting a peer review assignment—and the essential elements they should include in their review. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Healthcare policies promote technology use as a means to modernise healthcare and support seamless, person-centred care. However, despite information technology (IT) use being common practice in clinical settings, its use in patients' homes is still developing. This study explored patients' perspectives on the use of IT and electronic health records (EHR) in their home environment. Semi structured interviews were conducted with housebound patients who received regular care from the district nursing team, and thematic data analysis was undertaken. Participants reported variable knowledge and experiences with mobile working and EHR. Most were positive and identified clear benefits for clinicians. However, few participants reported benefits to themselves. Contrary to popular belief, IT use is expected by older patients and, while barriers were identified, the overall opinion was positive. A digital divide was apparent, with some at risk of being disadvantaged by the increasing use of technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Working papers are an important source of information for finance researchers. Almost ten percent of the citations from a sample of article bibliographies from leading finance journals were to working papers. The citations were primarily to working papers issued by academic institutions during the previous four years. Checking the citations against three important electronic resources covering working papers -EconLit, IDEAS, and the Social Science Research Network-revealed that fewer than half of the cited working papers were included and only a small percentage were offered in full text. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article provides a preview of forthcoming papers accepted for publication in the Health Information and Libraries Journal. Topics include the effectiveness of citation searching in urgent and emergency care configuration studies, an alternative screening approach for Google Search in systematic reviews, and the analysis of health information seeking behavior among adolescents.

A review of several articles on topics like spear tackler's spine, risk factors for shoulder and elbow injuries in adolescent baseball pitchers, and the correlation of meniscal and articular cartilage injuries in children and adolescents is presented.

Presents a list of various technical information papers from the organization TAPPI.

Reference analysis is a convenient method for classifying scientific papers into subject categories at publication level. When it is applied to a paper in a single subject category journal, it can recognize the paper's categories other than the journal category. We evaluate the performance of reference analysis with two existing threshold-setting methods for such papers in two physiology journals. The performances of reference analysis with the two threshold-setting methods are also analysed according to the citation distributions of the referenced categories. The numbers of citations to the referenced non-paper categories distribute around a baseline. Introducing a baseline factor into one of the two methods improves the performance of the reference analysis. Errors in the reference analysis come from the various citing behaviours of different authors. Although the two journals used in this study are labelled by the same category, they each have their own focus, which was determined from their topic distributions obtained using the proposed method. This finding matches the author guidelines of the two journals. The distribution of the number of subject categories of each paper is also given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Dialogos (14159945) is the property of Universidade Estadual de Maringa and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

European pharmaceutical companies have a legal requirement to provide non-promotional Medical Information (MI) services to support healthcare professionals (HCPs) who are using their medicinal products. While the industry has self-regulating bodies with established Codes of Practice, these mainly focus on promotional messaging and commercial activities. In the absence of similar frameworks for MI, such services struggle to understand how to meet HCP digital expectations, often in fear of breaching the promotional codes. This is limiting access to the wealth of non-promotional patient-focussed information held within the industry. Meanwhile, a large volume of unregulated, low-quality information can be readily found on the internet. To understand the current status, the Medical Information Leaders in Europe (MILE) industry association performed a benchmarking survey which explored the online MI service provision of 13 mid-large pharmaceutical companies across Europe. This highlighted a great diversity in approach in terms of geographical coverage and content. Visibility and access for HCPs is complex, compromising online engagement and website utilisation. This MILE position paper highlights the critical need to establish a clear governance model, which empowers pharmaceutical company MI functions to provide unbranded, non-promotional, medicinal product information sources to support HCP online information needs. It is essential to build confidence, transparency and trust by establishing a practical quality framework with principles and standards for online MI services for HCPs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the concerns on the quality of scientific papers writing. Topics include the benefits of improved scientific paper writing for the researchers and on the progress of science, the factors that influence better writing and the rules that will boost the impact of a paper through the reinforcement of attitude toward scientific literature.

The article discusses important methods in preparation for writing a scientific, peer-reviewed journal paper. It highlights the need to consider the appropriate journals, understand its various components and the professional ethics, co-authors and internal review. Moreover, the significance of being a paper reviewer in gaining knowledge of what constitutes as a high-quality research paper is also emphasized.

This study aims to determine the creative thinking patterns of students contained in scientific papers. The method used is a qualitative research method. Sources of data in research are students and documents in the form of papers. There are three data collection techniques, namely (1) reading papers, (2) interviews, and (3) observation. The results of this study show a pattern of lateral thinking that appears in several developments of ideas. Then, there are still traditional thinking patterns. Factors that cause traditional thinking are (1) experience, (2) sources of information, (3) lack of confidence, and (4) willingness to learn. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Using an integrated model of health literacy, we discuss the importance of health literacy among foreign domestic workers in the provision of informal caregiving during outbreaks of communicable diseases. COVID‐19 pandemic is used as an example. Background: Adequate health literacy in the population is known to be important for the prevention of communicable diseases. Foreign domestic workers, a group of marginalised caregivers in private households, are generally presumed to have limited health literacy because of numerous socio‐cultural disadvantages. To date, there is limited evidence that these informal healthcare providers receive support from community‐based nurses. Design: A discursive paper. Conclusion: Foreign domestic workers, with varying levels of health literacy, may be viewed either as a resource to break the chain of infection or as a potential reservoir of communicable diseases in the community. Meanwhile, restrictions imposed in response to diseases transmissions (e.g. stay‐at‐home measures for COVID‐19) may directly exacerbate the social support received by these foreign domestic works and their ability to access health‐related information. There are also concerns about their ability to appraise and evaluate information related to communicable diseases at a time when fake news and misinformation are being disseminated through social media. Language and cultural barriers are important issues that need to be addressed to ensure that foreign domestic workers are in a position to follow public health recommendations. Relevance to clinical practice: Nurses hold an important position in empowering foreign domestic workers with adequate health literacy, by engaging groups of foreign domestic workers in the community and their consulates in planning educational programmes and effectively disseminating information. At a time of global pandemic, an assessment of the health literacy levels of foreign domestic workers in places like Hong Kong is urgently required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tech mining is the application of text mining tools to science and technology information resources. The ever-increasing volume of scientific outputs is a boom to technological innovation, but it also complicates efforts to obtain useful and concise information for problem solving. This challenge extends to tech mining, where the development of techniques compatible with big data is an urgent issue. This article introduces a semi-supervised method for extracting layered technological information from scientific papers in order to extend the reach of tech mining. Our method starts with several pre-set seed patterns used to extract candidate phrases by matching the dependency tree of each sentence. Then, after a series of judgements, phrases are divided into two categories: 'main technique' and 'tech-component'. (A technique, for the purposes of this study, is a method or tool used in the article being analysed.) In order to generate new patterns for subsequent iterations, a weighted pattern learning method is also adopted. Finally, multiple iterations of the method are applied to extract technological information from each paper. A dataset from the field of optical switcher is used to verify the method's effectiveness. Our findings are that (1) by two loops of extraction process in each iteration, our method realises the layered technological information extraction, which contains the 'part–whole' relationships between main techniques and tech-components; (2) the recall rate for main techniques is superior to the baseline after iterating 23 rounds; (3) when layering is disregarded, in the aspect of the precision and the volume of techniques, the new method is higher than that for the baseline; and (4) adjusting another two parameters can optimise the efficiency – however, the effect is neither pronounced nor straightforward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study aims to conduct a literature review on factors that influence the implementation and design of performance measurement systems in nonprofit organizations. Design/methodology/approach: The research strategy is conceived through a literature review focused on the analysis of authorship, supported by bibliometric techniques such as citation, co-citation and co-authorship social networks. Findings: Models and theories proposed for measuring performance in non-profit organizations are being researched, starting to form an intellectual structure related to performance measurement systems and nonprofits. Three main research topics have been given more attention: strategic performance and public service performance, health-care performance and nonprofit operations strategy and performance measurement. Research limitations/implications: The study is limited to scientific journal papers and could benefit from the addition of new sources of information such as conference papers, books and standards. The body of knowledge of this topic could also benefit from an in-depth investigation through a comprehensive review of models and theories, as a proposal for a future research agenda. Practical implications: As practical applications are identified, groups of researchers in different countries and subjects that can generate research agendas, scientific communities used to investigate issues related to performance in nonprofit activities. Originality/value: Performance measurement in nonprofit organizations is a topic of study that has been receiving considerable attention in recent years, to the point that the literature is revealing specific models for measuring performance in this type of organizations. Particular models and theories are being conceived, specializing existing models and theories related to performance measurement and management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper makes a systematic review of 131 articles on research productivity basing upon a model developed by Denyer and Tranfield. The current review paper analyzed the quantitative and qualitative dimensions of the sample literature in the field of research productivity. The quantitative analysis incorporates the chronological distribution of articles, keyword wise distribution, form wise distribution, discipline wise distribution, publisher wise distribution, data sources used in the articles, most prolific journals of the publications and qualitative dimensions studied are top-cited articles and all the metrices used in these articles. The paper is based upon literature retrieved from Scopus bibliographic database and other online databases like Emerald, Taylor & Francis, Google Scholar, JSTOR, ProQuest, and EBSCO for full-text articles. It was revealed that there is significant growth in the number of articles during the fourth decade (2011–2020) whereas the highest numbers of citations (1530) have been received during the third decade from 2001 to 2010. Journal articles appeared to be the predominant source of information. A wide range of metrices found to be used in the sample literature to analyze the research productivity namely basic metrics, metrics dealing with growth, collaboration and metrics at institute level and author level metrics. It will serve as a reference tool to the scholars and practitioners in the field who will be acquainted with the publications on research productivity as well as various metrices, laws of bibliometrics, statistical tools, used in the articles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unimodal biometric systems are susceptible to a variety of problems such as noisy data, intra-class variations, limited degrees of freedom, non-universality, spoof attacks and unacceptable error rates. Some of these limitations can be addressed by deploy multimodal biometric systems that integrates the evidence presented by multiple sources of information The proposed system provides effective fusion scheme that combines information presented by the multiple domain experts based on the Rank level fusion integration method, thereby increasing the efficiency of the system which is not possible by the unimodal biometric system. The proposed multimodal biometric system has a number of unique qualities, including principal component analysis and fisher's linear discriminate methods for individual matchers authentication. The novel rank level fusion method is used in order to consolidate the results obtained from different biometric matchers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the discussion on following papers being accepted for publication in a future issue of the Health Information and Libraries Journal including survey of US academic libraries highlighting the COVID-19 experience.

The application of big data, radiomics, machine learning, and artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms in radiology requires access to large data sets containing personal health information. Because machine learning projects often require collaboration between different sites or data transfer to a third party, precautions are required to safeguard patient privacy. Safety measures are required to prevent inadvertent access to and transfer of identifiable information. The Canadian Association of Radiologists (CAR) is the national voice of radiology committed to promoting the highest standards in patient-centered imaging, lifelong learning, and research. The CAR has created an AI Ethical and Legal standing committee with the mandate to guide the medical imaging community in terms of best practices in data management, access to health care data, de-identification, and accountability practices. Part 1 of this article will inform CAR members on principles of de-identification, pseudonymization, encryption, direct and indirect identifiers, k-anonymization, risks of reidentification, implementations, data set release models, and validation of AI algorithms, with a view to developing appropriate standards to safeguard patient information effectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We evaluate what distinguishes a highly cited Interfaces paper from other Interfaces papers that are cited less often. Citations are used to acknowledge prior relevant research, to document sources of information, and to substantiate claims. As such, citations play a key role in the evolution of knowledge. More recently, citations are also being used to quantify the impact of papers and journals, a practice not without controversy, but one that motivates our work here. We find that Edelman competition papers, longer papers, tutorials, papers with larger numbers of references to prior literature, and papers with a larger number of "callouts" (a feature no longer used by Interfaces) tend to have a higher number of citations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports on the awarding of the SOFW Journal Best Paper Award 2022. The winners were honored during the SEPAWA® CONGRESS 2022. The first place went to the article "Nano or Non-Nano: The Central Aspect of the Measurement Method," which deals with the measurement of nanomaterials in cosmetic products. The second place was awarded to the article "Optimizing Your Resources for Market Information and Product Development," which provides an online database containing detailed information on household care products. The third place was awarded to the article "A Benchmark-Based Eco-Score for Sunscreen to Communicate Environmental Compatibility to the Consumer," which has developed an information system and logo for assessing the environmental compatibility of sunscreens. [Extracted from the article]

The article discusses various reports published within the issue, including one by George Nezlek on offshore systems development, and another on information systems.

The article discusses the importance on the development of the National Career Development Strategy Green Paper in providing a framework to demonstrate the significant role of career developments in Australia. It highlights the support of the Career Development Association of Australia (CDAA) on the development of effective policy in education and employment. It also outlines a range of important elements proposed by the green paper including the focus on lifelong career development.

The article presents an overview of the green paper that proposes a strategy that is committed to lifetime access to career development services and on the national leadership role for the Australian government. It states that the paper is of particular relevance as the commitment of the Australian Commonwealth Government toward career development reached a low point. The significance to support individuals to acquire career management skills has also been recognized by the paper.

Review papers commonly summarize the current knowledge on a selected topic. These types of papers are considered narrative reviews. Narrative reviews rarely detail the methods used to select the literature included, nor do the authors typically report the purpose of the review. Narrative reviews may be biased due to inadequate literature reviews or individual beliefs. A systematic review limits bias by disclosing the purpose of the paper, the assembly of the literature, and the appraisal of study quality. A meta-analysis, a specific style of systematic review, quantitatively pools data from individual studies for re-analysis. Pooling data increases the sample size and improves statistical power. The common representation of a meta-analysis is the forest plot. The forest plot demonstrates the odds ratio of individual studies, the weight each trial contributes to the analysis, and the 95% confidence intervals. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses are not without shortcomings, including issues related to study heterogeneity. Because of their transparency, systematic evaluations of the literature are superior to narrative reviews. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]