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The 17 papers in this collection all deal with 20th-century journalism, journalists, and mass media. The papers and their authors are: "Building One's Own Gallows: The Trade Publications' Reaction to a Federal Shield Law, 1972-1974" (Karla Gower); "The Useful Ogre: Sweden's Use and Views of American Television, 1956-62" (Ulf Jonas Bjork); "Black or Negro? The Media's Dilemma of Racial Identifiers, 1967-1971" (Joey Senat); "Hostile Crowds, Homosexual Activists and AIDS Victims: Mainstream Newspapers Cover Gay Liberation" (Elizabeth M. Koehler); "Unhappy Events in Ireland: Irish-American Press Coverage of Dublin's 1916 Easter Rising" (Karen Patricia Potter); "'They're Talking about Us': Yellow Journalism and the Press of West Africa" (W. Joseph Campbell); "Same/Difference: The Media, Equal Rights and Aboriginal Women in Canada, 1968" (Barbara M. Freeman); "Literature, Propaganda and the First World War: The Case of 'Blackwood's Magazine'" (David Finkelstein); "Reasoned Protest and Personal Journalism: The Liberty and Death of 'The Intermountain Observer'" (James B. McPherson); "Measuring Jazz Journalism in Missouri Dailies of the 1920s" (Steven D. Koski); "Fighting for 'The Big Voices of the Air': A History of the Clear Channel Broadcasting Service"; "Rural Publicity in the Boilerplate Era: The Mt. Clemens News Bureau" (James C. Foust); "The Delightful Relationship: Presidents and White House Correspondents in the 1920s" (Stephen Ponder); "Construction of a Gay Image in the Washington Press: 1943-1970" (Edward M. Alwood); "Balancing Academic Freedom and Academic Image: The North Carolina Speaker Ban, 1963-1968" (Patricia Richardson); "The Vietnam War, the Cold War, and Protestants: How the 'Christian Century' and 'Christianity Today' Reflected American Society in the 1960s" (David E. Settje); and "News Pegs and the National Farmers Organization: Episodic and Life-Span Patterns of Press Coverage" (Jane S. McConnell). (NKA)

The 14 papers in this collection all deal with 20th century journalism and journalists in the United States. The papers and their authors are: "Educating Ike: The Evolution of Presidential PR in 1953" (David W. Guth); "Crumbs from the Publishers' Golden Tables: The Plight of the Chicago Newsboy" (Jon Bekken); "'They Work Too Hard': How Newspapers Justified the 1924 Exclusion of Japanese Immigrants" (Brad Hamm); "Agnes Smedley: A Radical Journalist in Search of a Cause" (Karla Gower); "The Camera's Red Lens: Television Coverage of Wounded Knee II, 1973" (William Hewitt); "From College Expulsion to Pulitzer Prize: How the New York World-Telegram's Fred Woltman Became the 'No. 1 Newspaper Specialist' on Communists" (Brad Hamm); "The Segregationist Press in the Closed Society: The Jackson Daily News' Coverage of the Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1964" (David R. Davies); "A 'Political Institutional' Theory of the News: The Emergence of Independent Journalism in Detroit, 1865-1920" (Richard L. Kaplan); "Will Irwin Revisited: A Contrast of Past and Present Criticisms of the Press" (Brian C. Smith); "Returning Government to the Hands of the People: The Pacific Northwest's Nonpartisan League Newspapers" (Mary M. Cronin and Paul Schlienz); "Birth Control Crusade: The Public Relations Campaign" (R. Brooks Garner); "AIDS and the Gay Press: Uncovering or Covering Up?" (Rodger Streitmatter); "The Farmer and the Radio Man Should Be Friends: Clear Channel Radio Stations and the Farm Lobby, 1941-1968" (James C. Foust); and "Electrical Transcriptions: Quality Programming for All Radio Stations" (Jann Hyde). (NKA)

The 13 papers presented in this collection all deal with journalism and journalists from colonial America through the 19th century. The papers and their authors are: "'The Presence of God Was Much Seen in Their Assemblies': Religious News in Colonial America" (David A. Copeland); "And So They Came: The Persuasive Effect of American Settlement Literature during the Colonial Era" (Julie Hedgepeth Williams); "The Impact of the American Revolution on the Occupational Ideology of Journalists: A Comparison of Pre- and Post-Revolution Prospectuses" (Patricia L. Dooley); "Trade, Treachery, and Daily Necessities: The Significance of the Sea to Colonial Newspapers" (David A. Copeland); "The Press and the War of 1812" (Susan Thompson); "'A Tincture of Madness': The Failure of Benjamin Franklin's West Indies Printing Partnerships" (Ralph Frasca); "'The Earnest Endeavor': Andrew Brown's Role in Philadelphia's 1793 Yellow Fever Epidemic" (Mark A. Smith); "Constantine Rea: An Antebellum Editor" (Nan Fairley); "The Rise of the Fact and 'Naive Empiricism' in Journalism and the Sciences, As Seen in the Great Cholera Epidemics of 1832, 1849, and 1866" (David T. Z. Mindich); "Observers of Crisis and Compromise: The Washington Correspondents of 1850" (Mark J. Stegmaier); "With Respect and Admiration--Walter Mason Camp, Journalist of the Little Big Horn" (Warren E. "Sandy" Barnard); "Domesticity and Municipal Housekeeping Concerns in the Writing of Women Journalists during the Nineteenth Century" (Agnes Hooper Gottlieb); and "From an Incautious Heroine, Ishbel Ross: Arms Outstretched beneath a Backward-Billowing Old Glory" (Beverly G. Merrick). (NKA)

The 16 papers presented in this collection all deal with journalism and journalists from colonial America through the 19th century. The papers and their authors are: "Fighting for a Continent: Newspaper Coverage of the English and French War for Control of North America, 1754-1760" (David A. Copeland); "A Romance with 'Local' Happenings (Never Mind What You Were Taught): Colonial Americans and Their Newspapers" (Julie Hedgepeth Williams); "When Women Speak: A Comparison of the Voices of Black Women Journalists before and after the Civil War" (Bernell E. Tripp); "Inventing an Indian Icon: How the Press Made Sense of Sitting Bull" (John M. Coward); "From Populist to Patrician: Edward H. Butler's Buffalo 'News' and the Crisis of Labor, 1877-1892" (Michael J. Dillon); "'I Heare It So Variously Reported': News-Letters, Newspapers, and the Ministerial Network in New England, 1670-1730" (Sheila McCall McIntyre); "Christmas Puffery: Christmas Book Advertising in Nineteenth Century Newspapers" (Priscilla Coit Murphy); "Little Big Horn Coverage in the Texas Press: Fiercely Partisan Myth-Making" (James E. Mueller); "The Paper and the Poles: The First Major Crusade of Buffalo's "Evening News'" (Jerry Goldberg); "The Work That Came before Art: Willa Cather's Journalism, 1893-1912" (Carolyn L. Kitch); "From 1850 to 1950: Actions of Early Journalists Often Unethical, Even Illegal" (Fred Fedler); "The Medium in the Mirror: How Journalists in the 1880s and 1890s Viewed 'New Journalism'" (James McCollum); "Women's Moral Reform Periodicals of the Nineteenth Century: A Cultural Feminist Analysis" (Therese L. Lueck); "The Third Most Valuable Newspaper Property in Chicago: A History of the 'Chicago Journal'" (Jon Bekken); "Converting the Popular to Politics: The American Feminist Magazine as Forum for Transformation" (Amy Beth Aronson); and "Cattle Papers and the Cowboy: Myth-Making in the 'Bad Lands Cow Boy'" (Ross F. Collins). (NKA)

Journalism on the agricultural frontier of the Old Northwest territory of the United States was shaped by a variety of cultural forces and environmental factors and took on diverse forms. Bridging the gap between the two cultural forms of written correspondence and printed news was a third form: the handwritten newspaper. Between 1844 and 1854 there were at least three handwritten newspapers published in the frontier town of Washington, Iowa. They were the "Domestic Quarterly Review," the "Washington Shark," and the "Quarterly Visitor." Though this genre was not peculiar to the agricultural frontier, the appearance of these particular papers can be understood in terms of their demographic and biographic contexts. During its first 15 years, Washington was without a printing press. The town had developed as an agricultural center rather than as a trade or business center, and because of its relative isolation, its population had remained modest in size. Possibly because of their relative isolation, the editors and their readers turned to the handwritten papers as one means of recreating the cultural world they had known. The editors, who were lawyers, politicians, and educators, may have tried to create a communications environment that could embody their own cultural and professional values and provide a mode of discourse to which they had grown accustomed. (Author/FL)

Questions concerning the relative protection afforded by the speech and press clauses of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, the law of libel, and protection for the editorial process are the focus of this paper. The first section summarizes arguments for First Amendment press protection, focusing on the question of whether there is a historical basis for making a distinction between the speech and press clauses of the First Amendment, as well as on approaches to the inherent difficulties in defining "press." The second section discusses implications of the 1974 Supreme Court decision in "Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc.," in which the Supreme Court for the first time applied the constitutional libel defense established in "New York Times Co. v. Sullivan" to media defendants. It outlines problems with the media-defendant approach taken in the case and notes the reluctance of several state courts to extend the constitutional privilege to nonmedia defendants. In its third section, the paper outlines implications of the 1979 "Herbert v. Lando" case, in which the Supreme Court cast serious doubts on the scope of protection afforded the editorial function of the press. It explains the question posed in the case, discusses the Supreme Court's response, and suggests that a constitutional privilege for the press was not ruled out by the Supreme Court ruling. The paper concludes by observing that the issues involved in the ongoing speech-press debate have received little illumination from recent Supreme Court libel decisions. (GT)

Noting that, historically, newspaper editors copied the best, and sometimes erroneous, stories from other newspapers published in distant cities, this paper explores newpaper coverage of the 1871 Great Chicago Fire, and the myth that Mrs. O'Leary's cow was to blame. After suggesting that a report invented the story of the O'Leary cow kicking a lantern and starting the fire, the first portion of the paper describes the dry and fire-prone conditions of the city at the time, the O'Leary family, and the fire's destruction. The middle portion describes how the four Chicago newspapers, their offices destroyed, still managed to publish in the days immediately following the fire. This section also examines initial newspaper accounts of the fire, which did in fact begin in O'Leary's barn, and traces the origins of the "irate cow" story. The next section explores accounts published in papers across the country, discussing why the stories were so sensational and inaccurate. These include a story stating that the fire was the result of a communist conspiracy. The last portion of the paper describes various witnesses and their testimony before the Board of Police and Fire Commissioners--most of them exonerating the O'Learys of blame for the fire--and then discusses the most likely causes of the fire, and the likelihood that the "cow story" had been a hoax intended to make the story more lively. (HTH)

The nature and function of news in the public life of seventeenth-century New England and the legacy this conception of news left for the development of American newspaper journalism in the eighteenth century are explored in this paper. The paper argues that the origin of American news--its subject matter, style, and method of reporting--is deeply rooted in the religious culture of seventeenth-century New England and that the doctrine of divine providence helped to shape the nature of news and news reporting in America. The publications of Samuel Danforth, Increase Mather, and his son, Cotton Mather, all leading seventeenth-century religious figures, are examined in the paper to illustrate the eclectic, reportorial method of inquiry. The paper claims that the characteristics of news and news reporting that emerged in seventeenth-century New England--event orientation, supported by reportorial empiricism and authoritative interpretation--left an ambiguous legacy, a legacy for "both" orthodoxy and heresy in modern American journalism. The paper concludes that Puritanism in America provided a rich environment for the growth of news and for the growth of a particular methodology for identifying, gathering, reporting, and publishing news stories, and that for the most part, the first newspapers, such as the "Boston News-Letter," continued the news reporting style that had been central to the teleological news system of seventeenth-century New England. (Eighty-three notes and two tables of data are included.) (MS)

The History section of the Proceedings contains the following 12 papers: "Change on Tap for Nashville: The Telegraph and News Content, 1860" (Frank E. Fee, Jr.); "Rod Sterling's 'Hegemony Zone'" (Bob Pondillo); "The Publications of the Carlisle Indian School: Cultural Voices or Pure Propaganda?" (Beth A. Haller); "'Upholding the Womanhood of Woman' by Opposing the Vote: The Countermovement Rhetoric of the 'Remonstrance,' 1890-1920" (Elizabeth V. Burt); "Seeking the Editorial High Ground: E.W. Scripps' Experiment in Adless Journalism" (Duane Stoltzfus); "Edward H. Butler of the Buffalo 'News': The Ascent and Corruption of a New Journalism Pioneer" (Michael J. Dillon); "Selling Cable Television in the 1970s and 1980s: Social Dreams and Business Schemes" (William J. Leonhirth);"John Shaw Billings: The Demons That Drove Time/Life's 'Editor's Editor'" (Michael F. Lane); "Issues of Openness and Privacy: Press Coverage of Betty Ford's Breast Cancer" (Myra Gregory Knight); "The Japanese-Language Press and the Government's Decision of the Japanese Mass Evacuation during World War II: Three Japanese Newspapers' Reception of the War, the Japanese Americans' Wartime Status, and the Evacuation" (Takeya Mizuno); "Free at Last? Religious Contradictions in the Origins of the Black Press in America (Allen W. Palmer and Lyrum Laturner); and "Why Did Women Journalists Leave the Newsroom?: Stories of Quitting (Linda Steiner). (Individual papers contain references.) (CR)

The 1925 Scopes trial and H. L. Mencken's published opinions about it provides an excellent example for both scholar and student alike to study issues of free speech, justice, publicity, public relations, and cutting journalistic writing. "Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes was a Mencken extravaganza; he gave the trial its derisive name and described it as "colossal buffoonery." A review of the developments of the trial shows that it is more complex than it is generally understood to be. It sprang from questionable purposes; all parties concerned held dubious motivations and goals. Dayton's townspeople were swindled by an eager desire for fame and greedy hopes for local prosperity from a public relations-backed publicity spectacle. The publicity generated a carnival-like atmosphere that made their town and themselves the laughingstock of the nation. Like the young and inexperienced teacher John Scopes, the people of Dayton were willing, ill-used pawns in an enterprise they did not understand. Nevertheless, the Scopes trial and Mencken's commentary provide valuable lessons 70 years after the event. Civil repression remains abundantly evident and pervasive whether from zealots of fundamentalism, McCarthyism, or modern political correctness and requires vigilant and vigorous opposition. The message of the Scopes trial endures as a monument to Mencken; his legacy provides a metaphor for all individuals to protect and preserve their right of expression--to speak, to write, and to think--against any threat to freedom. (Contains 15 references.) (TB)

As literature designed specifically to help young adults make appropriate career decisions, vocational guidance books explain what background, experiences, and personal traits are necessary to succeed in various careers. They are of interest to researchers because of the attitudes they reveal about journalism as a field. A review of 30 journalism guidebooks written during the first half of this century shows that the activities, needs, status, rewards, and environment of journalism were described in fairly consistent ways through mid-century. "A nose for news" appeared in Julian Ralph's 1903 highly autobiographical books as a necessary trait for journalists and thereafter in every major guidebook by both journalists and vocational advisers. Given the profession's chronically long, irregular hours and physical discomfort, and sometimes even danger, journalism demanded physical strength and good health (and sometimes sheer youth), persistence, and emotional stamina or "thick skin." On the other hand, those who persevered won thrills and excitement, although not high pay. Ralph criticized yellow journalism as corrupting and demoralizing, and he repudiated the view of journalism as a business. But he seemed more interested in using his own considerable experience to discourage those for whom journalism was not absolutely their forte than in attracting those who might be interested in its powerful public service mission. The message was also highly gendered. Women were steered toward the lighter tasks such as society news or more often steered out of the field altogether. (Contains a 58-item bibliography.) (TB)

Students from Nashville, Tennessee's four black higher educational institutions organized and carried out sit-ins at lunch counters of downtown department stores beginning February 1, 1960. They wanted the lunch counters opened to customers of all races. The students used press coverage to convey the nonviolent character of their movement. Because their success depended on public support, it was necessary to use the media to convey both their message--human justice and equality--and their nonviolent tactics. Because civil rights demonstrations were perceived as being associated with violence, it was important for the public to see that the students were its victims rather than its perpetuators. The morality play of the sit-ins was made-to-order for the media. The sympathetic treatment received by the students was not due to an inherently sympathetic, white-dominated media. It followed a subtle, but predictable tendency in news media coverage to make events follow a predictable "storyline," complete with heroes, villains, starring and supporting actors, all resulting in a "good conquers evil" conclusion. Media coverage played a critical role for the Nashville students. Their commitment to nonviolence made their story that much more appealing to a white press. (Eighteen references are attached.) (RS)

This essay critiques the depictions of rank and file newsworkers of the 1920s and 1930s that are offered in traditional journalism histories and in cultural, social, and women's histories of the press. Following a tradition established in the first half of the 20th century, contemporary media historians continue to reify the use of other standard media texts as important sources in understanding the history of mass communication. The chronological structure, coupled with technology-driven periodization, reinforces a belief in the notion of history as progress. The style, vocabulary, and language used in media histories reflect a continued belief in the knowability of historical truth. The treatment of reporters during the interwar period in media history texts is extremely limited, consisting for the most part of decontextualized superficial discussions of exceptional individuals who stand apart; omitted from this treatment for the most part is any consideration of reporters as a group of working people. Discussions of women reporters during the interwar years focus on the strategies individual women use to triumph over adversity, and emphasize the progress made (albeit limited) of women in the media. In their coverage of the Great Depression, media histories fail to adequately address the human consequences. Discussion of women reporters during the Depression is also limited. Media historians who do not address newsworkers fail to realize that regardless of gender, race, or ethnicity, reporters remain an underrepresented class of workers, whose influence and significance on American media history has not been fully explored. (Contains 41 references.) (RS)

During the period from 1630 to 1690, the Puritans were not arbitrary oppressors of free speech. They believed that public expression was valuable and necessary. They restricted only ungodly print or speeches by heretics and blasphemers. Within the boundaries of godly expression, Puritans encouraged discussion for the better enlightenment of mankind. The rule that free expression should be a blessing to society occasionally backfired as people such as John Palmer accused them of silencing free speech. However, Palmer was supporting a governor whose basis for governing was the squelching of political expression and the silencing of Puritan religious ministry. Puritans did restrict the press enough so that Quaker prints which lashed out against New England had to be printed in Philadelphia or London. However, the Puritans allowed the press at Harvard College, which they controlled, to publish other opposition pieces. Although historians sometimes jump to the conclusion that the Puritans had no interest in free expression, the Puritans' printed works show toleration and encouragement of free speech and free press within certain limits. So long as free speech did not abridge religion, free expression was both a treasure and a prize, a tool for learning and a means of debate. (Sixty-seven notes are included.) (RS)

This proceedings contain 18 papers on American journalism history before the 20th century. Papers in the proceedings are: "Military and Press Discord during the Civil War: Foreshadowing of Future Disputes" (Maury M. Breecher); "The Missouri Press Association: A Study of the Beginning Motivations, 1867-1876" (Stephen A. Banning); "The Detroit Evening News: Nonpartisan, Reform Journalism in the 1870s: 1876-1877" (James Bow); "The Blood of Kansas and the New York Penny Press" (Gary L. Whitby); "Selected Texas Newspaper Editorials and Spanish-American War Sentiment" (Douglas Ferdon and John Tisdale); "A Visible Minority: Literary Journalism's Story-Telling and Symbolism Spurred the Anti-Chinese Movement by Tacoma Daily Newspapers in 1885" (Myron K. Jordan); "American Crime and Trial Pamphlets after the Penny Press" (James L. Aucoin); "For 'The Prosperity of the Denomination': Understanding the North Carolina Baptist Press, 1845-1861" (David A. Copeland); "The Stamp Act Press: The First True Mass Medium" (Julie Hedgepeth Williams); "Covering the Big Story: George Whitefield's First Preaching Tour, News Manipulation, and the Colonial Press" (David A. Copeland); "Latest from the Canadian Revolution: Early War Correspondence in the 'New York Herald' 1837-1838" (Ulf Jonas Bjork); "Abolitionist, Emigrationist, Feminist: Mary Ann Shadd Cary, First Female Editor of the Black Press" (Bernell E. Tripp); "James Bryce and the Promise of the American Press: 1888-1921" (James D. Startt); "Maria W. Stewart: An African-American Woman Journalist Who Raised a Fiery Voice in the Abolitionist Movement" (Rodger Streitmatter); "A Silence in Massachusetts: John Campbell and the Boston 'News-Letter'" (Wm. David Sloan); "American Newspaper Contempts before 1880" (Richard Scheidenhelm); "The Rise of the English-Jewish Press in America" (Barbara Reed); and "Congress and Journalistic Privilege: An Historical and Legal Perspective" (Robert L. Spellman). (RS)

This proceedings contain 16 papers on American journalism history in the 20th century. Papers in the proceedings are: "News Suppression & Press Intimidation During the Nixon Administration" (Egbe Enonnchong); "The Persian Gulf War: Revolution in News Transmission" (Robert L. Spellman); "South Dakota's W. R. Ronald: Prairie Editor and an AAA Exponent" (Elizabeth Evenson Williams); "William H. Mason: How a Journalist's Murder Influenced Media Coverage" (Mary K. Sparks); "A Paper for Those Who Toil: The Chicago Labor Press in Transition" (Jon Bekken); "A Southern Demagogue as Portrayed through Florida Newspapers" (John Galey); "Ohio Newspaper Coverage of the 1920 Presidential Campaign" (Douglass K. Daniel); "Truth and Jimmy Carter: The 1976 Presidential Campaign" (Sonya Forte Duhe);"The Carter Presidency and the National Press: Grappling with the Process of Truth" (Kyle Cole); "Ambassador of American Journalism: Alistair Cooke" (Michael D. Murray); "Photographs, Image Manipulation, and False Light Invasion of Privacy" (Steve Buhman); "'Lou Grant': Creating Characters for a Newspaper Drama" (Douglass K. Daniel); "Eisenhower, McCarthy, and News Conferences That Fought Back: A Turning Point in White House Press Relations, 1953-1954" (Craig Allen); "Reaching for Professionalism and Respectability: State Press Association Ethics Codes in the 1920s" (Mary M. Cronin and James B. McPherson); "Penitents Brought into the Fold: Tales of Conversion, Heresy, and Contrition in 'Time' Magazine" (Richard Lentz); and "Was the Mainstream Press a Promoter of the Progressive Ideology? The 'New York Times' and the 'New York World', 1900-1917" (Elizabeth Burt). (RS)

Clifford Glenn Christians' work in the area of media ethics education from 1976 through 1984 has influenced the way media ethics is taught to many college students today. This time period includes, among his other accomplishments, Christians' work on an extensive survey of how media ethics was taught in the late 1970s, his work on the Hastings Center monograph "Teaching Ethics in Journalism Education," and his creation in 1983 of the book "Media Ethics: Cases and Moral Reasoning," a textbook that is still used today. In 1984, important events in the teaching of media ethics occurred, events in which Christians was instrumental in one way or another. The effects of these events, which included the creation of a teaching workshop for educators and a journal for mass media ethics, are still visible today. (Contains 124 notes. Details on Christians' degrees and professional experience are attached.) (Author/RS)

The emergence and development of symbolic interactionism, and its implications for the study of social phenomena, journalism, and mass communication, are examined in this paper. The introductory section discusses the emergence of symbolic interactionism in the midst of the rapid rise of industrial institutions in the late nineteenth century, points out that it can be taken as a model of American conceptions of communities, and shows how its antecedents may be located in the emergence of the Pragmatist movement and in parallel developments in American sociology. Separate sections are then devoted to the following topics: characteristics of Chicago journalism in the 1890s, which show the close relationship between the emergence of symbolic interactionism and the appearances of new journalistic perspectives; the link between symbolic interactionism and Progressivism; ways in which the American liberals who were the architects of Pragmatism and symbolic interactionism sought ways of releasing individualism from the forces of privilege; a major shift in American sociology, from theoretical discussions to urban research, in the early twentieth century; and reasons for the recent resurgence of interest among social scientists in symbolic interactionism and among historians in the Progressive period. (GT)

The "American Review of History and Politics and General Repository of Literature and State Papers" ("American Review") was the first quarterly magazine published in the United States (1811-12). Its editor, Robert Walsh, was considered to be one of the leading men of letters of his era. Located in Philadelphia, the 26-year-old Walsh developed a publication to report regularly on the activities of governments in Europe, particularly in Great Britain. His quarterly was modeled after the popular British periodicals, such as the "Annual Register of England," and the articles concerned matters such as the political struggle between France and Great Britain and also gave attention to President James Monroe and the United States Congress. The publication also contained much nonpolitical material. Walsh used book reviews, which took the form of lengthy essays; speeches; and essays on history, society, geography, and science. Walsh wrote most of the material himself, but did use contributors when they made manuscripts available. Walsh was forced to cease publication of his magazine after only eight issues because of unfavorable political conditions (his pro-English position was unpopular in 1812), lack of contributors, and few subscribers. (Author/FL)

A qualitative examination was made of the black newspaper, "The Blade" in Parsons, Kansas, during two six-week periods: September 24-October 29, 1892, the first available issues of the paper, appearing just prior to national elections; and October 23-November 27, 1897, which included two weeks before and four weeks after local elections. The intent was to explain the marked changes that occurred between the periods and evaluate the newspaper's possible influence on the course of local events by considering the experience of the black community in Parsons before and after the 1890s. The analysis revealed that the early "Blade's" inside editorial and local news pages protested oppression and projected to blacks an image of themselves as participating members of society. But its clippings endorsed the status quo of American society, which perceived individual blacks as threatening and ignored the existence of a black community. The 1897 "Blade" lacked a sufficiently developed national communications network that in a more systematic way could have offered evidence to show that the increasing black consciousness and the white reaction against it were not simply local phenomena. (HOD)

The introduction of steam-powered ocean navigation in 1838 made possible the faster delivery of foreign news to United States newspaper offices and also gave rise to a new journalism genre--the transatlantic newspaper. Published on one side of the Atlantic and shipped by steamer for consumption on the other side, transatlantic newspapers compiled and condensed from all available sources the latest political, commercial, and shipping news. Although intended for private subscribers, they were important sources of foreign news for United States newspaper editors. Three such papers, all published in Liverpool, England, were "The European,""Charles Willmer's European Mail," and "Willmer & Smith's European Times." The last-named newspaper, published from 1843 to 1868, was the most influential and successful one. A comparison of the eight available copies of "The European Times" with the New York-based "Herald" and "Tribune" shows that between 1843 and 1848 more than 50% of the foreign news appearing in the two papers was taken verbatim (and usually without credit lines) from the European Times," suggesting that this newspaper had a significant impact on the foreign news presented by the two New York newspapers. (Author/FL)

The railroad and newspaper industries grew up simultaneously during the 1870s, 1880s, and 1890s, coming together in the common effort of delivering newspapers by rapid trains. The newspaper trade literature from that era contains romantic accounts of the exploits of these trains, while comparable railroad trade literature infrequently acknowledges that newspaper publishers did indeed require special (unscheduled) high-speed trains to deliver their papers. The trains, chartered cheaply because of the fierce rivalry among railroads, extended the reach of many papers, especially morning dailies; and they heightened intercity competition, particularly for the smaller dailies. It seems possible that newspaper trains delivering big city morning dailies led to the proliferation of evening papers in outlying towns and small cities. The extent of the close working relationship between newspapers and railroads raises questions about newspaper objectivity. The fast-train experience also accents modern questions about societal effects, because modern newspapers are in the midst of a new expansion--this time electronic--of their potential distribution area. (Author/RL)

Two leading black newspapers were very outspoken during the black American's struggle for equality following the Civil War of the 1860s. The Chicago-based "Conservator" and "Appeal" actively encouraged blacks to enter the nationwide power struggle among warring interests on their own behalf, and on a cultural level they attempted to elevate the race above the increasingly disappointing Republican party as a symbol of moral legitimacy. Staunchly defending bourgeois morality and propriety, the editors of both papers exemplified a secular piety, a return to morality through the creation of a secular culture rather than a return to the other-worldly religion of the previous generation. With the rise of racial political consciousness, black newspapers leaned toward reporting black news and away from editorial commentary, as illustrated by continued coverage of the lynchings and other injustices against blacks in the South. The promotion of a respectable middle-class life style and a concern about home life, education, and standards of conduct and morality were characteristic concerns of the rising coterie of black women journalists. As the small crusading newspapers were soon overshadowed by the mass press, their plans for the race were realized later by the professional politicians and advancement workers. The papers provided the rhetorical models to weld black Americans into a group with shared racial allegiance. (HTH)

A feminist newspaper, "The Revolution," published between 1868 and 1870 filled a void in the popular press of the time, proclaiming the necessity of equal rights for women in all areas of life. Owned by Susan B. Anthony and edited by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, the paper repeatedly emphasized the importance of education of women. Four major themes were stressed: the necessity of opening men's colleges to women, the failure of wealthy women to fund women's colleges, the need for professional education of women, and the need for equal pay for women teachers. (LP)

Employing a "resource dependency" model from organizational theory, this paper explains the growth of newspaper cooperation out of publisher competition in Chicago (Illinois) journalism during the period 1880 to 1910. It suggests that publisher cooperation in business matters also resulted in a changed news coverage style and emphasis. It argues specifically that cooperation resulted in news coverage that was significantly more information oriented and less sensational over time and that was more concerned with citywide problems than with atypical events affecting individuals. A content analysis of the Chicago "Daily News" is used to illustrate these changes, and a content analysis of the St. Louis "Post-Dispatch," where the publisher spirit of cooperation was much less in evidence, is used to provide comparison and contrast with Chicago journalism during the period studied. The content analyses indicate that the "Daily News" changed significantly in the expected direction between 1880 and 1910, while the "Post-Dispatch" seemed to remain much the same. (Author/FL)

A cultural history of the rise of black consumer magazine publishing is presented in this paper. It examines the interrelated elements in the development of shifts in the institutional support base of black magazines and shifts in the ethos or style of middle-class black life, as reflected in the magazines themselves. The paper takes as an example of early black commercial magazines the "Half-Century," published in Chicago from 1916 to 1925 by Anthony Overton, one of the leading black entrepreneurs of the segregated urban black communities. Overton's business career, publishing career, and the character and content of his magazine are examined in relation to the larger historical contexts of black life and black publishing to provide a cultural history of the early stages in the development of black consumer magazines. (Author/FL)

To examine what freedom is and how it, in its many manifestations, may best be used to thrust journalism into more productive, progressive, and moral directions, this paper surveys the concepts of freedom and press freedom in Western thought from the eighteenth century to the present. After surveying the evolution of the concept of freedom, beginning with Aristotle, the paper examines perspectives on freedom of expression as given by classical defenders of the concept, concentrating especially on British and French Enlightenment spokesmen. Early American perspectives (of Jefferson and others) are surveyed next. The paper then gives an overview of some contemporary viewpoints, followed by a more specific discussion of press freedom as it impinges on journalism and journalistic thinking today. Sixty-three notes are included. (SR)

Unlike its white counterpart, the black press has historically exceeded its role of information source. Specialized black media were founded to decry racial conflict and gain civil rights. Only rarely, and secondarily, have black papers achieved commercial success. The purposes of black papers have changed with the society they serve. Ideologies evidenced in "Freedom's Journal," for example, were pro-abolition and anti-colonization; they acquiesced in certain aspects of the status quo and promoted self-improvement strategies among blacks. These ideologies are still seen in the contemporary black press along with a continued militance. Today, however, emphasis is on black heritage and news of African nations. Idealogical differences among black leaders across time can also be linked to the black press. For the vast majority of American blacks living in inner cities, the general media still fail to provide either sufficient black news or a black perspective on the news. That failure explains the development and continued significance of black newspapers. It also explains why the black press can be expected to take a path apart from the general media, as it has throughout black history. (HOD)

H. A. Chadwick bought one-half interest in the Seattle "Argus" in 1894 and through this newspaper expressed the sentiments of the progressive movement of his time, a combination of reform-oriented and conservative forces. The newspaper was only six weeks old and deep in debt when Chadwick took over the editorial duties and he quickly increased circulation through imaginative strategies. The slant of the paper was independent of any political party, though Chadwick freely acknowledged his Republican political ties. Like most Progressives, Chadwick believed that monopolistic trusts were corrupt and ought to be eliminated through legislative action. Newspapers' complicity in this corruption particularly offended Chadwick and he specifically condemned the "Seattle Times" and the"Post-Intelligencer" for carrying blatantly fraudulent advertising. Chadwick also expressed his mistrust of certain religious organizations such as the Christian Scientist Church and the Mormon Church. The "Argus" has been labeled by some historians as conservative, pro-business, and a paper for the wealthy, but the early years of the "Argus" reveal Chadwick as an independent thinker, a social critic, and a reform-minded progressive. One hundred and seven end notes are appended. (SRT)

In the early 1900s, the small, penny newspapers of E. W. Scripps were aimed primarily at working class readers, had a policy of limited advertising, and relied upon circulation to provide the bulk of revenues. The "Spokane Press" was conceived in 1902 with E. W. Scripps, his sister Ellen Browning Scripps, and George Putnam as copartners. The paper was to follow the Scripps plan already established in Cleveland, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Kansas City, San Diego, and Los Angeles. Scripps demanded an aggressive editorial policy and lively news, but permitted no attacks on the competition. Putnam was handed many similar orders, but eventually began to violate them, first by attacking the "Chronicle" in several editorials, and later by expanding the paper to eight pages in order to increase advertising volumes and revenues. Scripps feared this would make the "Press" a carbon copy of the news and editorial policy of the competing Republican, business-oriented Spokane papers, the "Spokesman-Review" and the "Chronicle", which would have destroyed the carefully cultivated distinctiveness of the "Press." Putnam eventually resigned over this issue and Scripps's policies became increasingly unrealistic and unfeasible. (SRT)

Based on an examination of well-kept primary source material, this paper presents a personal and professional history of Mary Paxton Keeley, the first woman graduate of one of the first journalism schools in the United States, the School of Journalism at the University of Missouri. Starting with her early years, the paper explains that Keeley was a native of Independence, Missouri, who received her bachelor's degree in 1910, two years after the founding of the school. It shows that by her own account, Keeley was the first woman reporter in Kansas City, Missouri, taking a job at the "Post" a week after graduation, and that nearly two decades and a master's degree later, she began the journalism department at Christian, now Columbia, College in Columbia, Missouri, and taught there for a quarter century, dying on December 6, 1986, at age 100. The paper, which examines her life in the context of the changing role of American women at the beginning of this century, with a particular look at women journalists and journalism educators, illustrates the education and career choices available to women at the time. Her pioneer spirit and her full, active life are also emphasized--it is noted that even after retirement she worked in journalism, as an editor, free lance writer, and book reviewer, and that in fact, she became a photojournalist in her seventies. (SKC)

A study was undertaken to describe the financial affairs of 49 Wisconsin newspapers enumerated in the 1860 United States Census of Products of Industry schedules. Specific information was sought concerning the cost of establishing a newspaper, the cost of materials and supplies, the number of employees and their pay, the value of the newspaper and job printing work produced, and the financial returns of the newspaper-publishing business. The data were then compared with similar data on all businesses in Wisconsin in 1860. The results revealed that the newspaper establishment was smaller than other businesses in all input and output measures except the number of employees. Newspaper publication and job printing done in association with publication were labor-intensive businesses; therefore, the payroll was the larger proportion of the total actual costs of operation. As production increased, however, the value of raw materials increased more than did payroll. The operating costs for doing newspaper publication and job work were greater than initial investment, and the costs of newspaper production increased per unit of total output at a greater rate than did job printing costs, indicating that newspaper production was relatively more expensive to do than job work. (FL)

An examination of the portrayal of women in popular magazine advertising from 1942 to 1945 suggests that the mass media played a major role in calling women out of the home and into the factory and machine shop to assist in the war effort. Discouraged from working during the Depression years when jobs were scarce, in the 1940s women were eagerly invited to join the labor force to help mobilize for global war. With "Rosie the Riveter" as their national heroine, wartime magazines proclaimed women's capability to perform almost every kind of theretofore "male" task. With the closing of war industries and the return of job-hungry soldiers, however, the magazines began to tell women to go home. In the late 1940s, popular magazines featured aproned housewives once again content in a completely domestic role. (Author/MKM)

Although the suppression in 1917 of "The Masses," an influential Socialist magazine, has been depicted as an American tragedy, such a narrow interpretation ignores the bizarre, confused, often comic developments and episodes that attended the magazine's end. A reexamination of the demise of "The Masses" has been made to show the milieu in which the proceedings occurred. Using biographical materials and original, contemporary sources, this reanalysis has helped elucidate the federal government's wayward legal machinations, its position with regard to the magazine, the devil-may-care attitudes of the left-wing editors themselves, the hilarity of the first trial, and the war hysteria of the times. More than a tragic story of a small, powerless, left-wing publication silenced by the ruthless collusion of establishment forces, the premature end of "The Masses" is really a part of the larger history of a more youthful, less cynical America. (RL)

Mary Abigail Dodge, a Washington, D.C., correspondent before and after the United States Civil War, was one of the most acclaimed women journalists of the nineteenth century. Unknown today, Dodge wrote on politics, religion, and contemporary issues for newspapers and magazines and commented prolifically on the role of women in society. After feminist leanings as a young woman, she became increasingly conservative as she grew older. Her most celebrated articles appeared in the "New York Tribune" in 1877 and 1878 and attacked the efforts at civil service reform attempted under the administration of President Rutherford B. Hayes. Throughout her 40-year career, Dodge insisted on writing under the pseudonym, "Gail Hamilton." Dividing her life into two totally different spheres, she remained "Abby" to her family and refused to acknowledge in public that she was also "Gail," the famous literary figure. Well-known as a brilliant and witty conversationalist, she had wide-ranging contacts in literary and political circles. Her career illustrates that an able woman could carve a place for herself in Victorian journalism, but it also illuminates the self-doubts and insecurities of a woman trying to function in a man's occupation. (Author)

Lorena A. Hickok was a notable woman journalist of the early twentieth century whose career was greatly altered by her friendship with Eleanor Roosevelt. After reporting for several newspapers across the country, Hickok became one of the first women hired by the Associated Press wire service (AP) in 1928. She was assigned to cover Eleanor Roosevelt during Franklin Roosevelt's first campaign for the presidency of the United States, at which time they became very good friends. Hickok later became the first reporter to conduct an on-the-record interview with a First Lady. However, when their friendship began to conflict with her loyalty to the AP, Hickok resigned from that organization in 1933. As an investigator for the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, Hickok's reports from her fact-finding tours contained information on unemployment and relief, but also captured the human side of the bitterness and heroism of Americans caught in economic disaster. In the 1950s Hickok and Mrs. Roosevelt coauthored a book on women in politics, and in 1962 Hickok wrote a biography of Mrs. Roosevelt. Before her death in 1968, Hickok lamented the loss of her notable newspaper career, saying it was the only thing she had done really well. (HTH)

Eleanor Roosevelt's commercial radio broadcasts during her White House years (1933-1945) were significant for three reasons. First, she was one of the few women who performed as a news commentator during this period. Her ability to pursue such a career owed much to her position as First Lady and represented the merging of the roles of celebrity and broadcast journalist early in radio history. Second, although Mrs. Roosevelt's lucrative radio contracts posed ethical questions, her work also raised societal consciousness concerning the right of women to have careers and be well-paid for their work. This issue was especially germane to the male-dominated radio industry, which considered women inferior as on-air broadcasters. Third, as Mrs. Roosevelt's radio career developed, the content of her broadcasts became both more substantive and partisan. Ironically, Mrs. Roosevelt's sex and charitable donations limited criticism of her radio commentary. Thus she was able to carve out a successful career in commerical broadcasting, since her position somewhat insulated her from attacks. (Author/HOD)

Journalism historians in recent years have made good use of agenda-setting theory in research, but there has been one drawback: in concentrating on the political and economic views of publishers, editors, and reporters, the agendas of those working behind the scenes, the public relations men and women have been overlooked. The public relations agenda was particularly important in the 1920s, when it was estimated that over half of all stories in the "New York Times" and other major newspapers originated in public relations offices. Ivy Lee, the "father of modern public relations," had an agenda that can best be understood through an analysis of his economic and theological beliefs in an early twentieth-century context. Lee was one of the first public relations practitioners to oppose competitive enterprise and espouse alliances of large corporations with each other and the federal government. He combined sophisticated economics with "situational ethics" developed through assimilation of popularized Darwinian theory and Freudian thought. Lee's beliefs concerning economics and theology allowed him to conceal his major objectives with almost total assurance that he was working for a greater good. This helps to explain why Lee had such great success in dealing with the press: He was seen as a proponent of the economics of the future, and his liberalism proved influential. (Author/DF)