Search

After reviewing the limits of the current approaches, we introduce an analytical framework for up-scaling analyses of ecological processes. The framework attempts to produce a conceptual unification and leads to a ten-step approach for up-scaling from a source to a target scale. The literature on ectomycorrhizal fungi is then screened following each up-scaling step. We conclude that one needs to construct four (pseudo) hierarchical levels in order to understand the ecological role of ectomycorrhizal fungi in the ecological productivity of ecosystems (scale of 104-105 m2) and one more level, if one is interested in evolutionary processes such as gene flow or speciation. The modularization scales for understanding the role of ectomycorrhizal fungi are those applicable to bacteria (10-6-10-4 m2), fungi (functional dynamic modules occupying surfaces of tenths of m2, and a tree plot of 400–900m2), epigeous fungivorous invertebrates and mammals (104-106 m2), and, for speciation, to small catchments of several hundreds of km2. The analyses showed that the source for up-scaling has to be a plot of 400–900m2. This plot has an associated homomorphic model with a maximum number of nine functional dynamic modules for the structural and functional modeling of ectomycorrhizal communities. Only one modeling step is needed for up-scaling from the source scale (plot) to the ecosystem scale, but the model΄s construction involves the previous construction of several up- and down-scaling models in order to quantify the effects of smaller- and larger scale organisms on fungi. The existing knowledge limits the up-scaling of processes, especially with respect to the available mathematical models, which in turn are limited by the data required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation practitioners and resource managers must often work with limited data to answer critical, time-sensitive questions. In many regions of the world, even the most basic information about the distribution of species is lacking. Knowing the geographic extent of a given species or ecological system is the first step in planning for its management or conservation. The sustainable management of fish stocks, timber, waterfowl populations, and biodiversity in general requires high quality spatial data on species distributions. Selecting preserves or easements to protect plants and wildlife, for instance, requires detailed knowledge of where different species are on the landscape. Such information is the foundation of science-based management and is necessary for assessing the risks of land-use actions, management scenarios, or other human activities to plant and wildlife populations (Huettmann et al. 2005). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The worldwide commercial cultivation of genetically modified (GM) crops has raised concerns about potential adverse effects on the environment resulting from the use of these crops. Consequently, the risks of GM crops for the environment, and especially for biodiversity, have been extensively assessed before and during their commercial cultivation. Substantial scientific data on the environmental effects of the currently commercialized GM crops are available today. We have reviewed this scientific knowledge derived from the past 10 years of worldwide experimental field research and commercial cultivation. The review focuses on the currently commercially available GM crops that could be relevant for agriculture in Western and Central Europe (i.e., maize, oilseed rape, and soybean), and on the two main GM traits that are currently commercialized, herbicide tolerance (HT) and insect resistance (IR). The sources of information included peer-reviewed scientific journals, scientific books, reports from regions with extensive GM crop cultivation, as well as reports from international governmental organizations. The data available so far provide no scientific evidence that the cultivation of the presently commercialized GM crops has caused environmental harm. Nevertheless, a number of issues related to the interpretation of scientific data on effects of GM crops on the environment are debated controversially. The present review highlights these scientific debates and discusses the effects of GM crop cultivation on the environment considering the impacts caused by cultivation practices of modern agricultural systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deleterious effects of transgenic plants on soils represent an often expressed concern, which has catalyzed numerous studies in the recent past. In this literature review, studies addressing this question have been compiled. A total of 60 studies has been found, and their findings as well as their analytical approaches are summarized. These studies analyzed the effects of seven different types of genetically engineered traits, i.e., herbicide tolerance, insect resistance, virus resistance, proteinase inhibitors, antimicrobial activity, environmental application, and biomolecule production. Sixteen genetically engineered plant species were investigated in these studies including corn, canola, soybean, cotton, potato, tobacco, alfalfa, wheat, rice, tomato, papaya, aubergine, and silver birch. Many of these plants and traits have not been commercialized and represent experimental model systems. Effects on soil microbial characteristics have been described in various studies, indicating the sensitivity and feasibility of the analytical approaches applied. However, classification of the observed effects into acceptable and unacceptable ones has not been possible so far. Establishment of validated indicators for adverse effects represents a scientific challenge for the near future, and will assist risk assessment and regulation of transgenic plants commercially released to the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]