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This conference paper discusses two factors which seem to be responsible for the lack of clear progress in research dealing with motivation and learning in the schools: first, an overemphasis on the presumed influence of motivation on learning, which has resulted in a neglect of the many other processes that are directly influenced by motivational states; and second, a mechanistic conception of man which interferes with scientific progress. After an enumeration of the specific faults implicit in the present paradigm for motivational research in education, a new research paradigm is suggested which emphasizes the influence of cognitive processes on motivation. Also stressed is the need to develop a cognitive functionalism that is as precise as behavioral functionalism while not being immobilized by a mechanistic conception of man. Recommended research areas are: (1) intermediate difficulty, (2) intention, (3) intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation, (4) stages in achievement behavior, (5) the building of effort structures, (6) causal attributions for success and failure, (7) long-term motivational effects, and (8) achievement strivings among females. (CS)

This monograph comprises five papers presented at a symposium whose primary purpose was to discuss the role of direct observational techniques in the study of certain learning outcomes and of certain learning and instruction process variables in school settings. Each study represents an attempt to apply direct observational techniques to the investigation of the instructional-learning processes and to use the observational data for evaluating and documenting a wide range of learning outcomes. The first two papers, each examining a different technique, focus on how observational techniques are used as an evaluative instrument to study classroom behaviors across diffuse geographical locations and/or across different educational programs. In the three succeeding papers, the authors report studies designed to focus on certain instructional-learning behaviors for a particular purpose other than for the evaluation of classroom behavior in a summative sense. The last section contains two discussions that offer critical comments on the studies reported and suggest implications for further research. A "Description of the Learning Research and Development Center's Individualized Instructional Programs"; definitions; and a description of the observational instrument and techniques, data recording forms, and the criteria for their use are appended. (PD)

This paper is the record of a debate between Don Hellison, representing "humanism" in physical education, and Daryl Siedentop, representing "behaviorism." The paper contains a statement from each speaker, followed by each man's rebuttal. In his first statement, Hellison presents his image of humanity, emphasizing the human need to feel competent, develop a subjective belief system, and be consciously self-aware in a manner which is both reflexive and creative. Hellison contends that, translated into practice, the self-reflexive capacity of humans requires exposure, self-awareness education, and choice. Siedentop, replying to Hellison, disagrees that values arise spontaneously from within as an expression of the individual's inner nature. He contends that all behavior is determined, but need not be determined by coercive forces. Arguing that Hellison is implying that the quest for the growing competence of the individual cannot be accomplished through behavioral techniques, Siedentop outlines research at Ohio State University which concerns teaching preservice educators how to maximize student learning probabilities in a loving manner beneficial to student growth and development. In their rebuttals, Hellison embellishes on his remarks about self-control and Siedentop tries to define the difference between their opposing views. (JA)

Proxemics is a simulation designed to show how man exhibits different behaviors in given distances. Additionally, the simulation, in most instances, shows how people are feeling toward one another at the time a particular distance is used. The four main distances that man observes are intimate, personal, social, and public. Each of these distances has a close and a far phase, and, in general, varies from culture to culture. (Author)

The initial enchantment with the natural insight of the indigeneous paraprofessionsl is reexamined in this article. Funding has been cut from mental health programs whose originators and employees are too close to their work to examine its effectiveness objectively. Rather than viewing professionalism as an unfeeling state, the author recognizes it as an advanced stage of growth for the former paraprofessional who has sacrificed to realize his potential. If the job of preparing the paraprofessional for his work in the mental health field is to be done without diminution of quality, professionals must bear the responsibility for seeing that quality in practice, which comes only from workers who know themselves and have an adequate knowledge of psychodynamics, keeps pace with the increase in quantity common to programs utilizing local residents whose presence in a program tends to attract many neighborhood participants. (Author/PC)

Ten children (4- to 7-years-old) receiving articulation and language therapy and their student clinicians were evaluated on the Analysis of Behavior of Clinicians System to determine the length of time necessary to obtain a representative sample of clinician-client interaction during a therapy session. Approximately 10 minutes after the clinician and the client entered the experimental room, a video tape recording was made of a 15-minute segment of each therapy session. Data indicated that no significant difference existed between the behavioral patterns of clinician-client interaction when five 3-minute segments of recorded clinician-client interaction were compared. Thus, it was determined that a 3-minute period was sufficient to obtain a representative sample of clinician-client interaction during a therapy session. (GW)

Cross-cultural psychology had its beginnings at the turn of the century when W. H. R. Rivers made his famous investigations on perception and other processes. In the mid 1960's and early 1970's cross-cultural research as a method in psychology gained a momentum that led to an almost unchecked acceleration. The author details the recent growth in popularity of the field and points to the energies that can be called "hard-core" cross-cultural psychological efforts. Attention is given to the historical controversy between cross-cultural psychology and psychological anthropology. The author points to the fact that the two disciplines do not share the same data base, that is, ethnographers rely for the most part on naturally occurring mundane events while psychologists rely on experiments (experimentation versus naturalism). In the future, cross-cultural researchers in psychology will depend increasingly on cross-cultural "models." This will be done so as to integrate strategies and findings which may lead to more complete and valid generalizations about human behavior. The author closes his discussion with a brief summary of four cross-cultural models. (Author/PC)

Adaptive behavior is defined as behavior where a system adapts itself to the requirements of the environment, and adapting behavior, where the system changes the environment to suit itself using a variety of tools. A wide variety of possible mixtures of both also becomes evident. The result of economic affluence is viewed as such "adapting behavior" in the demand for goods and services, and dynamic sensory feedback provides an intricate means of regulating motion in relation to the environment. However, these phenomena of human behavior, currently evincing themselves in economics and learning cannot be solely restricted to one or two fields. It is postulated that they apply to all facets of human transaction (economic, educational, ethical, psychological, cultural, social, and political) in all material-reward-oriented societies when each society has attained a modest but adequate standard of living for the majority of its population. (Author/CJ)

The hypothesis that individual differences in psychological differentiation are related to the perceptions of the independence of leadership behaviors was tested. After viewing a supervisor-subordinate interaction sequence on closed circuit television tape, subjects responded to questionnaires measuring their perception/judgments of the supervisor's behavior and their degree of psychological differentiation. The results supported the hypothesis in that field dependent subjects perceived/judged Consideration and Initiating Structure behaviors to be significantly more related than field independent subjects. The implication of these results are discussed in terms of both the leadership and the perceptual/cognitive literature. (Author)

Compared were the adaptive behavior and IQ scores of educable retarded persons 16- to 45-years-old who were successful (N=47) in group living. Scores of parts 1 and 2 of the Adaptive Behavior Scale, including domains of independent functioning, language development, antisocial behavior, and unacceptable or eccentric habits were correlated to house parents' determination of success or failure. Data indicated a significant difference between the two groups. Behavior domains linked to nonsuccessful group living included untrustworthy behavior, economic activity, and hyperactive tendencies. Results suggested the feasibility of insuring appropriate placement through behavior rating. (CL)

The purpose of this investigation was to determine if three Adlerian interpreters could examine the same completed protocol and arrive at similar interpretations of the subject's life style based on the information contained in the protocol. Since the study was intended only as a preliminary investigation, no attempt was made to analyze the information statistically. An attempt was made to shed some light on the following questions: (1) to what extent can the diagnostician's interpretation of the subject's life style be based solely on information contained in the protocol itself? (2) how would a pooled consensual interpretation of all three diagnosticians compare to or differ from the original summary as stated by the author? (3) will any non-consensual or contradictory interpretations affect any one diagnostician's final life style summary? It was concluded that three Adlerian interpreters, operating independently, can arrive at very similar life style summaries based solely on the information contained in a completed protocol. Suggestions for further research are presented. (Author/BW)

The problem of the uncooperative experiment arises with the use of human subjects. Evidence shows that typical volunteer subjects have the following characteristics: better education, higher paying jobs, greater need for approval, lower authoritarianism, higher I.Q. score, and better adjustment to personal questions than nonvolunteers. Data also suggest that volunteers are more sociable, arousal seeking, younger, firstborn, and more unconventional than nonvolunteers. How representative, then, can volunteers be? Influences of experimenter on subject must also be considered. An experimenter can unknowingly communicate expectancies through transmission of cues. Professional experimenters should be carefully trained in the detection and control of artifact and expectancy-demand characteristics of experiments. There has also been discussion of using a more natural setting than the laboratory. Individual human characters and differences may lead to confusing results in an experiment despite all efforts to control behavior. (PB)

Paul Goodman's criticisms of and proposals for institutions, including educational institutions, have as their foundation 1) a set of leading principles derived from experience and centered in a transactional view of experiences and 2) a concept of "self" which constitutes a theory of human nature. Human nature is viewed as process: tendencies or dispositions actualized in contacts in the organism/environment field which, in turn, affect the ways in which a person approaches and contends with experience. Goodman's use of phenomenological method, his attention to experimental verification, and the essentially pragmatic foundation of his philosophy provide an empirically and logically sound basis for his theories. (Author)

This paper reports research, on the stability and interpretation of the least preferred coworkers score (LPC), the measure of leadership style used in the development of Fiedler's contingency theory of leadership effectiveness (Fiedler, 1967). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the paper upon which this summary is based was threefold: First, to develop a general model integrating various formulations of expectancy theory as applied to work and motivation. Second, to review the overall findings of recent empirical research with reference to the major constructs of the integrative model. Third, to suggest some areas in need of further research in the theory. Expectancy Theory was first proposed as an explanation of work behavior by Vroom (1964). According to the theory, an individual chooses the work behaviors he engages in on the basis of the interaction between (1) the valences he perceives to be associated with the outcomes of the behavior under consideration; and (2) his subjective estimate of the probability that his behavior will indeed result in the outcomes. The original Vroom model has undergone several developments in the last few years: (1) the distinction between first level and second level outcomes; (2) identification of intrinsic sources of valences; (3) the distinction between expectancy I and expectancy II; and (4) the incorporation of additional variables in the model to elaborate in explaining specific job behavior, such as abilities to explain job performance, and the equity concept to explain job satisfaction, etc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The situational approach in leadership research is based on the belief that to obtain effective performance, different styles of leadership are required in different situations. Following the situational approach, Fiedler's (1967) contingency model postulates that effective group performance is contingent upon the interaction of leadership style as measured by the esteem for the least preferred co-worker (LPC) and the favorableness of the situation for the leader. The purpose of this study was to test the idea that the perceived stressfulness of a situation moderates the behavior of high and low LPC individuals, and thereby helps to explain the inconsistent findings reported by several researchers regarding the behavior of high and low LPC individuals. A conceptual model was presented which integrated the findings of Mitchell (1969) to represent a non-stressful situation and of Fiedler (1967) to represent a stressful situation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on contingency theories of leadership and on the justification of developing additional research strategies in building and applying leadership theories. It states that non-contingency theories of leadership find a significant correlation between some form of leader behavior and some criterion as well as the possibility of some measure of environmental variation. It mentions that contingency theories cannot be tested without a priori specifications as to critical values of environmental values. It states that all theory are contingency theories if you consider that eventually limitations need to be brought in so to delimit the range of theory.

One school of thought, largely sociological in character, identifies bureaucratic structure and function as the central issue in leadership. Here the lender is defined in terms of position and expectancies. The influence of the leader is proportional to the value of his acts in permitting the bureaucratic structure to move where it seeks to go anyway. At this level of analysis ii is difficult to understand how and why organizations change. The answer structural theorists offer is in the realm of ideologies and technologies. Conflicts of interest within the bureaucratic structure give rise to new ideologies which as they become predominant alter the relations within the structure and lead to change. The forward edge of such change is often technological innovation that originates outside the bureaucratic structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The management of most company's daily operations abounds with highly programmed decisions: Consider merely the highly routinized rules that normally guide the everyday management of inventories, production schedules, machine and manpower allocations, cost estimation, mark-up pricing, etc. The more famous scientific description of a case of highly programmed decision making is perhaps G.P.E. Clarkson's, in which it was demonstrated that the portfolio selection decisions made by a bank trust investment officer were so well programmed that his decisions could be predicted by a computer, six months after his investment rules had been elicited by an interviewee.[2] This study, in contrast. focuses on highly unprogrammed decision making. This is a subject that usually gets relegated to the mystical realm, managerial "judgement". Critical decisions are produced every day for which the decision maker (Dm) has available no identifiable rules or pre-programmed decision procedure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Much of the attitudinal literature suggests the need to distinguish between those uninvolved and those highly involved with their job before attitudes and job behaviors are related. The objective of this study will be to examine this moderator strategy and its impact on job attitude-job behavior associations. Job involvement, though multidimensional, can be generally regarded as reflecting the degree to which one is identified psychologically with his work or the importance of work to one's self-image. The construct also refers to how a person perceives his work performance affecting his self-esteem. The primary determinant in being hilly job involved seems to be a general, rather pervasive value-orientation toward work learned early in the solialization process. It had been hypothesized that low job involvement should accentuate associations between job satisfaction and decisions to participate in an organization while high job, involvement would enhance decisions to produce-attitudinal relationships. It may be concluded that these hypotheses are supported for females, but not for mares examined in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]