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This collection includes conference papers on the education of the deaf and hard of hearing, including: (1) "Discovering Classroom Dynamics through Action Research: Strategies That Encourage Critical Thinking during Lectures" (Keith Mousley and Vicki Robinson); (2) "Current Literacy Practices That Are Working" (Henry Teller); (3) "A Prototype Research Approach Using ASL as a Primary Research Language with Printed English as a Secondary Language" (David Mason); (4) "The Hopwood Case: Its Effects on University Teacher Training Programs in Deafness" (Gabriel A. Martin); (5) "Constructing Inclusive Classroom Models That Serve Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students: Reports from Teachers in the Field" (Deborah Haydon and Karen Dilka); (6) "Including Competencies for Itinerants and Resource Room: Teachers in Preparation" (Carolyn Bullard and H. William Brelje); (7) "Problem Solving and Deaf College Students: Issues and Strategies" (Ronald Kelly and Keith Mousley); (8) "Co-Teaching Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students: Research on Social Integration" (Thomas Kluwin); (9) "Focus on the Classroom: Students as Synthesizers and Evaluators of Web-Based Instructional Units" (Pamela Luft); (10) "The Development of a CD-ROM To Teach Speechreading Skills" (Samuel B. Slike and Dorothy H. Hobbis); (11) "Comparison of Competencies of Cochlear Implants between Teachers of the Deaf/Hard of Hearing versus Speech-Language Pathologists" (Thomas W. Connolly and Gerald Powers); (12) "Reading Strategies: What Deaf Students Can Do" (Sandy Bowen); (13) "A 'Teacher Friendly' Language Assessment Instruction: Normative Data on Basal Readers" (Alfred H. White and Paula L. Scott); and (14) "The Effects of Computer-Mediated Communication on the Literacy of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Adolescents" (March Jones, Karen Kimmel, and Susan Brooks). An agenda of the conference is attached. (Each paper includes references.) (CR)

In the face of changing economic conditions and shifts in skill requirements caused by technology, American corporations must integrate learning as an integral part of their functioning. Businesses must implement learning-intensive production, speed up the process of learning how to improve training, and learn how to assess the results of training. Learning-intensive production can be encouraged by extending systematic training to all classes of workers and by rethinking human resources policy to encourage and support learning. The following critical mistakes in traditional education and training should be avoided: (1) skills are taught in progressively more difficult steps; (2) a skill is broken down into separately practiced subskills; (3) learners are treated like blank slates; (4) skills are taught in isolation; (5) knowledge, skills, and their application are separated; and (6) knowledge and skills are taught in a classroom setting unlike settings at work or in real life. Apprenticeship programs may be the most effective method of training, if they include the following components: (1) focus on the conditions of application of the knowledge and skills being learned; (2) take into account the learner's original ideas, stage discrepant or confirming experiences to stimulate questions, and encourage the generation of a range of responses with the opportunity to apply these in various situations; and (3) emphasize learning in context. Assessment should focus on authentic learning outcome measures based on demonstration and performance of competence. (FMW)

The history of vocational education in the United States from 1860-1930 is seen from a different perspective than that in existing accounts of the rise of mass vocational education. In this perspective, vocational education is defined broadly as encompassing professional training, including training for professions that emerged in that era (such as accounting), and evening and extension classes of colleges and universities. Although most advocates of vocational education in the public schools focused on "industrial" education--education for factory work--the demand for commerce-oriented vocational courses exceeded that for industrial courses. A major role was played by proprietary (profit venture) schools, especially correspondence schools, which enrolled an astounding number of students during this period. The majority of students who took vocational courses between 1890 and 1930 did so not as teenagers in public high schools but as adults who had already commenced their working careers. During this time, however, prominent educators such as John Dewey called for a kind of vocational education relating job skills and underlying sciences, aimed at preparation for a mobile career, and taking place in full-time institutions. Starting in the 1920s and continuing into the 1930s, the model of full-time, school-based vocational training began to replace prior models of evening classes. (103 reference notes) (KC)

Noting that students' failure to master the basic skills by third grade places them at high academic and social risk, this report provides a synthesis of the findings from a meeting that drew 30 of the nation's leading experts on early childhood education and school reform to discuss the plight of primary education. The meeting was designed to examine the necessary program and policy strategies most likely to bring about broad-scale improvement in the results of instruction in prekindergarten through third grade, particularly for children at risk. Participants included national leaders in educational research, policy, and practice relevant to the early grades; outstanding district and state superintendents; representatives of key education organizations and task forces; and representatives of several foundations. The report is divided into four areas around which the meeting's discussion centered: (1) instruction, learning, and the school context; (2) standards and assessment; (3) teacher preparation and professional development; and (4) the current context of education. Appended are two additional papers, "Conclusion: A New Pedagogy for Policy?" by David K. Cohen and Carol A. Barnes, which describes the challenges of preparing educators to teach students more rigorous, high-level curriculum content; and "Elementary Students at Risk: A Status Report," by Nettie Legters and Robert E. Slavin, which provides a status report on recent educational research documenting the numbers of elementary students at risk of school failure. (TJQ)

This paper identifies some recent dimensions of labor market restructuring, based on an analysis of change in the United States economy. Information was drawn from a number of service industries, including retailing, telecommunications, insurance, banking, advertising, accounting, and other business services. Following an introduction that defines the nature and purpose of the paper, Section 2 reviews some of the key factors behind the transformation in the demand for labor. They include increasing the competition and the introduction of new technology--two of the main forces that have resulted in the trend towards "vertical disintegration" and the rise in the demand for "contingent labor." Section 3 examines some principal forces that have transformed the labor supply, including growth in the pool of available part-time workers, the rise in the number of two wage-earner households, and rising educational attainment. The paper also points to the response by firms to some of these forces and specifically to the trend toward the dismantling of internal labor markets. In Section 4, the emergence of new labor markets structured around segments of core and contingent workers is hypothesized. These new segments are shown to differ widely from the so-called primary and secondary labor segments characteristic of the industrial dualism of the post-war years. (KC)

Plant operation currently consumes about 8 percent of an institution's budget (10-12 percent is not uncommon), of which half is expended on energy. In addition, the deferred maintenance of existing plant, a measure by which many institutions balanced their budget or minimized their deficits, can no longer be postponed. Nationally, an estimated $22 billion to $35 billion worth of maintenance is "now due." Rising energy costs and aging buildings will require institutions to devote an increasing share of their budget to the physical plant. As space becomes more expensive to maintain and operate, the method by which it is allocated and utilized will become of greater concern to the academic community. The issue this paper examines is: Should institutions of higher education cost-account space and physical plant operating and maintenance expenses to their academic units or programs? And if so, should fiscal responsibility include managerial control of the physical environment by those units? It is believed that if academic departments of colleges were financially responsible for their physical environment, the resources of the university's plant used in support of the academic mission would be more effectively utilized. (Author)

Three basic designs for studying college student attrition are described and the comparative assets and liabilities of each are discussed. It is noted that administrators faced with declining enrollments and costs for students not completing degree programs are likely to call for attrition studies, yet methodological inadequacies exist in many "local" or single-institution studies. The three basic designs--"autopsy," cross-sectional, and longitudinal designs--are evaluated with respect to such considerations as likely response rates and sample representativeness, controls for confounding variables, desirable analytical procedures, time-lines, relative costs, and applicability of data to other purposes. The information provided is intended to facilitate the cost-benefit judgments inherent in the decision to undertake an attrition study by highlighting the research and practical trade-offs required by the selection of a particular design. (Author/JMD)

Six symposium papers are included in this document. The first paper, by Henry Chang, is a brief profile of Asian/Pacific American (APA) librarians, emphasizing the need for more data on this group and the need for the group to become more assertive of their rights to equal opportunity in the field. The second paper, by Jane Katayama, addresses some of the problems confronted by APA librarians including being stereotyped into certain specialized positions and having poor communication skills as well as having a lack of assertiveness, a lack of political acumen, and insufficient representation in directorial or specialist positions. The third paper, by Asha Capoor, considers the factors which are important for achievement in the profession. The fourth paper, by Minja Lee, is an assessment of APA librarians' current status and professional achievements. The next paper, by Kanhya Kaul, is a commentary on the preceding ones and a summation of the groups' status to date. The final paper, by Bernard Kreissman, is an American, administrative perspective on the status of APA librarians, with some suggestions for dealing with the problems brought out in the other papers. (CG)

Much research has focused on cognitive skills in isolation from daily life and from action. However, memory and thinking in daily life are not separate from, but are part of, doing. This study is based on a theoretical framework that encompasses an integrated account of mind in action. This "activity theory" holds that neither mind as such nor behavior as such can be taken as the principal category of analysis in psychology. The starting point and primary object of analysis is the actual process of interaction in which humans engage the world and each other. This study used observation of assemblers carrying out their jobs of filling milk cases in a dairy plant under normal working conditions. Descriptions resulting from these observations enabled the creation of job simulations to observe performance under more constrained conditions. The observation of workers and later of secondary school students in simulated situations showed that the workers acquired nonliteral least-physical-effort strategies simply through doing. Many reached optimal performance without teaching. The study found that in some circumstances, the operations of the hand are functionally equivalent--the head takes over for the hand. The study suggests that practical thinking is orderly, that it exhibits certain common characteristics in a variety of life activities, and that it is amenable to scientific understanding. (KC)

Skill requirements for the economy are changing. Whereas many jobs in industries such as insurance and banking once required high school graduates to do clerical work, computerization has changed the requirements. Job functions are combined, and many jobs now require college graduates to do analytical work. Although these skill changes require reforms in education such as those currently occurring, other more sweeping, as yet formless, reforms are needed in the educational system. The educational system defines skills and successes in terms of rather narrow academic criteria, whereas success in the real world can take a number of paths. Success in academic pursuits is not necessarily predictive of success in work, and failure in academic skill, beyond a certain basic universally needed level, does not necessarily presage work failure. Society needs and rewards many talents and attributes neither taught nor valued in academic institutions. Therefore, the next wave of educational reform needs to address the issue of how to help children make the best use of their individual talents. Children also should be taught real world-of-work values such as cooperation and team effort, as children in Japan are often taught. (KC)

Economic changes and demographic realities may require fundamental changes in what individuals need to learn, how and when they need to learn it, and who needs to learn it. Examination of three strands of research should clarify these issues. The first strand consists of research on changes in the nature and structure of work and in the capacities required for work: it bears on what schools should teach. This research shows that both the service and manufacturing industries are moving from a production-oriented to a product-oriented world, from mass production to flexible production. These changes require both basic skills and more higher order thinking, even for jobs that are usually thought of as lower skill. The second strand of research relates to how schools should teach. This strand is pioneering work in cognitive psychology on nonschool learning and its implications for how formal learning is restructured. This work implicitly challenges the traditional distinctions between head and hand, academic and vocational education, education and training, and school-based and work-based learning. The final research strand involves at-risk learners as rational decision makers. This research suggests that school-based learning is not particularly related to out-of-school activity for any individual; however, what is taught in traditional schools and remedial programs seems less relevant to those persons who lack the ability or desire to enter professional occupations. (KC)

Included in this document are 24 preconference workshop papers prepared for the 1982 annual convention of the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), entitled "Shaping the Employer Role in Child Care." The purposes of the workshop were (1) to provide NAEYC members with a realistic picture of current employer involvement in child care, describing both various models as well as the implications of their adoption; (2) to identify the primary mechanisms for establishing linkages with other community-based organizations in an effort to stimulate corporate interest; and (3) to impart skills for working with the business community. Corresponding to the above purposes, individual papers are grouped into the following four major topic classifications: the current state-of-the-art of employer involvement in child care, employer options for supporting child care, building skills (needs assessment, marketing, taxation, fund raising, and so on), and working as a community. A list of related reading materials are appended along with a list of conference speakers. (MP)

The document contains papers presented at a meeting to consider global population growth. The purpose of the conference was to promote the exchange of ideas relating to population growth between educators, government officials, and development agency personnel from developing and developed nations. Ten papers are presented. Topics discussed include ways to implement global population policies, social science research on population and development, progress toward new contraceptives, reproduction research, the role of international assistance agencies in family planning, trends in international population assistance, and international population policy. A summary of conference proceedings highlights findings. These include that the field of population studies is changing rapidly, there is more awareness of population problems in the developing world, experts are increasingly convinced that population problems are closely related to development, developing nations are beginning to increase funds for population research, and both developing and developed nations are experiencing a sense of urgency in coping with population problems. (DB)

This conference proceedings contains a selection of the papers and awards given at a conference held at Carleton University in Canada. After the text of an address by the president of the Children's Literature Association, the following papers are included: (1) "Lone Voices in the Crowd: The Limits of Multiculturalism" (Brian Alderson); (2) "The Elizabeth Cleaver Memorial Lecture" (Irene Aubrey); (3) "Editing Inuit Literature: Leaving the Teeth in the Gently Smiling Jaws" (Robin McGrath); (4) "Cross-Culturalism and Inter-Generational Communication in Children's Literature" (Peter Hunt); (5) "Catechisms: Whatsoever a Christian Child Ought to Know" (Patricia Demers); (6) "The Queer, the Strange, and the Curious in 'St. Nicholas': Cross Culturalism in the Nineteenth Century" (Greta Little); (7) "The Clash between Cultural Values: Adult versus Youth on the Battlefield of Poverty" (Diana Chlebek); (8) "Fanny Fern and the Culture of Poverty" (Anne Scott MacLeod); (9) "Crossing and Double Crossing Cultural Barriers in Kipling's 'Kim'" (Judith A. Plotz); (10) "Adolescents as Instruments of Change: The English-language Novel Set in Post-Independence India" (Meena Khorana); (11) "Virginia Hamilton's Symbolic Presentation of the Afro-American Sensibility" (David Russell); (12) "Arabic Detective Fiction for Adolescents" (Sylvia Patterson Iskander); (13) "Circling the Square: The Role of Native Writers in Creating Native Literature for Children" (James H. Gellert); (14) "'Julie of the Wolves' and 'Dogsong': The Cultural Conflict" (Mary Lickteig); (15) "Florence Crannell Means: Cultural Barriers and Bridges" (Celia Anderson); (16) "Censors as Critics: 'To Kill a Mockingbird' as a Case Study" (Jill P. May); (17) "Safety in the Structures of Art: Bemelmans' Madeline Books" (Jackie Eastman); (18) "Kenneth Morris and 'The Mabinogion': The Welsh Influence on Children's Fantasy" (C. W. Sullivan, III); and (19) "Fairy Tale as Myth/Myth as Fairy Tale" (Jack Zipes). (MS)

This collection of 26 papers focuses on interdisciplinarity and its impact on the core or general education curriculum at postsecondary institutions. The papers include: "Professing or Instructing: Outstanding Challenges in the Task of Facilitating Student Reflection on Identity as Individual, as Family Member, and as Citizen" (Steve R. Gordy and others); "An Integrated Humanities Base: The Results of a Pilot Study" (Stephen Wilhoit); "Putting the Culture into Multicultural Education: Toward a Critical Model of Cultural Literacy" (Stanton W. Green and Stephen Perlman); "Making Connections: Interdisciplinary Senior Capstones for a Core Curriculum" (Beth Daugherty and others); "The Process of General Education Reform: An Impossible Dream...Almost!" (Thomas Curran and others);"Revolutions in Science: Making Connections across the Core Curriculum" (Frank T. Kuserk and others); "Evaluating Two Liberal Arts Curricula: An Initial Assessment of Comparative Performance" (Peter Von Allmen and others); "Teaching Literature and Medicine: Unequal Marriage?" (Gayle Whittier); "Theoretical Models of Curriculum Integration for Postsecondary Curriculum: A Historical Perspective" (Rose A. Rudnitski); "Writing To Learn: Learning To Write" (Joel Wingard and others); "Initiating Change in College Classrooms Through Stories and Collaborative Discourse" (Jere R. Holman and Mary A. Jensen); "Scientific Literacy and Quantitative Thinking" (Michael I. Sobel); "Innovative Approaches to Teaching Introductory Geology to Urban Students in the New York Metropolitan Area" (Howard R. Feldman); "In Response to Conflict: An Innovative and Practical Application of Interpersonal Communication Courses" (Dudley D. Cahn and Barbara Geider); "The 'New' Rhetoric Across the Disciplines" (Alison Warriner); "The Teaching of Critical Thinking through Adolescent Literature" (Sheila Schwartz); "Faculty Development for Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines" (Mark Weinstein and Wendy Oxman); "Global Origins of U.S. Society: Manhattan College's Multidisciplinary Course: Its Inception, its Syllabus, the Burdens of Success" (June Dwyer); "Values and Diverstiy: Towards a Critical Multiculturalism" (Scott Brophy and Steven Lee); "Cultural Encounters: Interdisciplinary Faculty Development for an Intercultural Core Curriculum; (Judith DeGroat and others); and "Global Issues, An Interdisciplinary Core Course" (Clarke Chapman and others). (MDM)

The six papers in this collection, which were presented at the 1991 Library Association of the City University of New York (CUNY) Institute, focus on the theme of library collection development: (1) "Evolving Knowledge Resource Access Systems: Keynote Address" (Peter R. Young, Executive Director of the U.S. National Commission on Libraries and Information Science); (2) "Cooperative and Collaborative Collection Development: Planning and Outcomes to Date in the University of California Experience" (Julia Gelfand, Applied Sciences Librarian at the University of California, Irvine); (3) "City University Resource Sharing--Is It Possible?" (Susan Vaughn, Associate Librarian for Collection Development at Brooklyn College, CUNY); (4) "The SUNY University Center Libraries' Participation in the PAClink Project and Two Other Grants" (Suzanne Fedunok, Assistant Director for Information and Research Services, State University of New York (SUNY), Binghamton); (5) "METRO's Collection Development Programs--How and Why They Do or Don't Work" (Rhonna A. Goodman, Assistant Coordinator of Programs and Services, METRO); and (6) "Collection Development: Survival Tactics in an Age of Less: Annotated Selective Bibliography" (Mimi B. Penchansky, Head, Online Search Service, and Suzanne R. Katz, Interlibrary Loan Librarian, Queens College, CUNY). (MAB)

This study is based on the general finding that the linguistic reality of a bilingual community is complex and that the two languages are not compartmentalized into any particular spheres of social life. It uses this finding to explore a theoretical position that treats facts regarding language functions and usage as if these, in and of themselves, could explain language shift, loss, or maintenance. By examining several defining criteria for diglossic and bilingual situations, it tests the theoretical power of the view that without diglossia, bilingualism is only transitional, and that with diglossia, the less politically powerful language or variety has a better chance of being maintained. In addition, problems of describing and analyzing language choice and vitality are raised as issues that need to be addressed, particularly in terms of data gathering techniques. Beyond empirical methods, problems of inquiry and analysis are examined, especially those based on abstraction divorced from socio-historical and economic conditions. (Author/AMH)

This collection stresses the need for informed and more sophisticated marketing techniques for college admissions officers to help them cope with the decreasing number of prospective college students. The importance of the college admissions office is increasing as admissions becomes a more crucial element to the colleges' financial well-being. The collected papers provide an appraisal of what the situation in college admissions will be like for the next few decades. Presentations include: The Future Market for College Education (Humphrey Doermann); Applying Marketing Theory to College Admissions (Philip Kotler); The Positioning Era: Marketing Strategy for College Admission in the l980's (Howard Geltzer and Al Ries); and Using Research in Analyzing Student Markets: A Case Study (Daniel F. Sullivan and Larry H. Litten). Introductory remarks by John M. Duggan are also included. (BH)

This collection of 39 papers represents the majority of presentations made at the ASIS Mid-Year Meeting at Syracuse University, May 19-21, 1977. Contents are arranged in alphabetical order by first author. The number preceding the author's name coincides with the numbered sequence of presentations in the program bulletin for the meeting. This collection was assembled for the convenience of the participants at the conference to facilitate information interchange. (Author/JPF)

Changes in the American economy and in the nature and organization of work fundamentally challenge the educational system and have implications for the Federal Government's role. Case studies of the insurance, banking, and textile industries demonstrate the following changes in the nature and structure of work: (1) both service and manufacturing industries are moving from a production orientation to a product and customer orientation, from mass production to flexible production; and (2) computerization usually increases skill demands. The following disconnections between education and the economy are discussed: (1) mismatches between school and non-school settings in the structure of knowledge used and the social structure of its use; (2) differences between employers' and educators' perceptions of problems; (3) problems with the signalling systems between school and work settings; and (4) organizational differences between schools and industries. The following economic changes that affect post-secondary education and training are discussed: (1) conflict between labor demand and supply; (2) employers' training investment patterns and their consequences; and (3) changing patterns of employer training investment. The following recommendations for the federal role in education are discussed: (1) reconceptualize the federal role in education; (2) lead efforts to revitalize education; (3) invest in educational research and development; (4) eliminate narrow job-specific vocational education at the secondary level, integrate academic and vocational learning, and extend this integration through the elementary grades; (5) unify education and training policy; and (6) think through a policy on training vouchers for workers. A list of 51 references is appended. (FMW)

School-based management (SBM) and its counterpart, shared decision making, raise traditional questions about power, representativeness, decentralization, and professionalism. This paper turns to history to provide a framework for untangling the issues that have come to the fore in current debates about power and shared school governance. In a historical look at school labor relations and the governance of education, the paper suggests that, in many ways, teacher associations have come full circle. A review of historical records supports two propositions: (1) Teacher unions have initiated and supported significant social change; and (2) unions, along with other stakeholder groups, play an important role as guardians of democratic processes. The paper revisits the objectives of teacher organizations and issues of educational decision making within a historical context, placing current debates against a backdrop of the struggles and ideals that shaped the earliest teacher unions. The formative union years, from the late 1800s to the mid 1920s, provide the framework for the historical discussion. A guiding assertion is that teacher unions have brought about and should continue to bring about radical change in education, but that they should take a historically informed approach to teacher involvement in school management. There is ample evidence that unionism and shared governance can and should coexist. Lessons from the history of teacher unionization are offered as guidelines for restructuring labor relations in the age of site-based, shared decision making. Two figures are included. (Contains 42 references.) (LMI)

Increasingly, health care providers, educators, social service personnel, mental health and juvenile justice professionals, and others recognize that the discrete services they provide cannot meet the complex needs of today's youth and families. This paper presents findings of a descriptive case study that explored the interorganizational problems and solutions of three school-based health centers. Data were gathered through document review; observation; and interviews with a total of 24 school personnel, superintendents and other district administrators, health center staff, and sponsoring agency directors and program liaisons. The three school-based health centers encountered three major challenges: developing and maintaining relationships, maintaining confidentiality, and managing the referral process. The paper offers five recommendations for improving school-based health services: (1) include role counseling or clinical social workers in the services offered; (2) assign broad titles to group counseling sessions; (3) establish an advisory board or council with a broad representative base; (4) establish regular meetings among key members of the school-based program, the principal, and school administrative team; and (5) provide consistent funding. The paper advocates a model of "mandated collaboration," which contains a range of voluntary choices within the mandated structure, or bottom-up reform with top-down support. The program encourages local collaboration within a structure that maintains broad state-mandated requirements. One figure is included. (Contains 103 references.) (LMI)

This paper addresses the advocacy movement for the inclusion of children with disabilities in general education classrooms, especially the meaning of this movement for children who are deaf. First the ideology of the militant push for full mandatory inclusion is considered. This ideology is seen as having been fueled by two events. The first event was the 1975 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act which focused on providing all children with a "free and appropriate public education" in the "least restrictive environment." The ideology of mandatory inclusion is seen as actually contradicting the law and defying the logic of how individual needs can best be met. Second, the civil rights rationale underlying the U.S. Supreme Court decision 40 years ago that banned racially segregated schools has been applied to educational placements for children with disabilities. Instead of safeguarding the rights of children, inclusionists are seen as denying children the right to attend school in alternative settings. The reality of inclusion for many deaf children is considered, and research is cited showing that the social communication between hearing and deaf children in inclusive settings is predominantly negative and does not promote social assimilation. Difficulties with using an educational interpreter are identified, including the denial of normal peer interaction to the deaf child and serious pedagogical limitations to an interpreted education. The paper urges educators not to abandon the continuum of alternative educational placements for deaf children in favor of mandatory full inclusion. (Contains 11 references.) (DB)

This paper reports preliminary research into the nature of relative expertise in economic problem solving. Specifically, this report seeks to address the question of whether the presence of economic knowledge alone accounts for expertise in economic problem solving or whether both economic knowledge and the development and employment of economic problem solving strategies are necessary prerequisites for acquiring expertise in economic problem solving. The researchers examined literal transcripts generated from the "talk-aloud" protocols of 28 participants responding to three economic problems. Each sub-group contained four participants: (1) high school students who had taken economics and those who had not taken economics; (2) undergraduate economics majors and non-majors; (3) graduate students in economics; and (4) Ph.D. economists employed in public and private forecasting and academic Ph.D. economists. The study employed a causal-comparative design with members of the seven sub-sample groups identified by the researcher. Three economics problems were employed in the study with several phases of data gathering involved in the analysis of data. Extensive charts and graphs accompany the text. Contains 41 references. (EH)

This paper reviews the book "Building Community in Schools," by Thomas Sergiovanni. The book's thesis--that schools are better understood as social rather than as formal organizations--is based on the assumption that the universal need for belonging and connection too often is unfulfilled in schools. The book recommends that school-reform efforts should be based on school-community building and provides a moral justification for community and a clear theoretical model for changing perceptions of schools. However, the paper argues that the book is less clear when discussing the social and political forces that present challenges to schools, specifically, how to manage conflict that accompanies the development of belief/mission statements. The book does not distinguish between having a common purpose and the content of that purpose. It also fails to adequately convey the dilemmas that practitioners face or to suggest processes for overcoming them. By using ideologically palatable examples of shared beliefs while also maintaining that the content of the beliefs are not important, the book evades the question of how communities manage conflict and how they ensure full participation of members with a diversity of backgrounds and interests. (Contains nine references.) (LMI)

"Full-service schools" present opportunities for communities to construct solutions at the local level that unite people and resources in times of stress. Among these schools are school-based health centers, youth-service centers, family-resource centers, Beacons/lighted schoolhouses, and community schools. They share the provision of community agencies in school buildings with the goal of creating comprehensive, one-stop educational and service centers. This paper describes different kinds of school-based initiatives across the United States and presents preliminary research findings on their effects. The paper also discusses the issues of governance, territorial concerns, community resistance, and funding. Suggestions for evaluating school-based programs, such as outcomes research and demonstration models, are offered. One figure is included. (LMI)

This paper reports preliminary research into the nature of relative expertise in economic problem solving. The first section briefly describes why such research is needed in the context of research on expert and novice problem solving. It also presents the problem explored in this study in the context of the existing research. Subsequent sections present the methods, results, and conclusions of the study. The researchers examined literal transcripts generated from the "talk-aloud" protocols of 28 participants responding to three economic problems. Each sub-group contained four participants: (1) high school students who had taken economics and those who had not taken economics; (2) undergraduate economics majors and non-majors; (3) graduate students in economics; and (4) Ph.D. economists employed in public and private forecasting and academic Ph.D. economists. The study employed a causal-comparative design with members of the seven sub-sample groups identified by the researcher. Three economics problems were employed in the study with several phases of data gathering involved in the analysis of data. Extensive charts and graphs accompany the text. Contains 32 references. (EH)

Communication is often identified as an essential aspect of leadership, an argument that is strongly supported by research on organizational change and leader effectiveness. This paper reviews that research and argues that this area of study should be formally addressed in teacher- and administrator-preparation programs. The paper also describes a university-based administrator-preparation program that incorporates the principles of experiential or problem-based learning and reflective practices to develop selected communication skills. The first instructional objective of the course is to help students learn to identify a problem. Next, the course concentrates on teaching new communication skills, such as listening, being assertive, and understanding group processes. A total of 17 students out of 34 responded to a questionnaire and evaluated the course positively. Conclusions are that: (1) communication skills can be developed as part of an administrative preparation program; and (2) the basic communication skills are important for educators. (LMI)

This paper provides an overview and critique of a team taught, senior level, interdisciplinary college course entitled "AIDS: Challenges and Crises." The details of the course and its underlying rationale are outlined. The paper concludes with a curriculum proposal rooted in the idea of critical education for citizenship. Those who teach political science in higher education can best achieve educational goals by utilizing critical education for citizenship. A course fitting this model would have the following characteristics: (1) be interdisciplinary in nature; (2) focus on public policy concerns and allow students to see the importance of participating in public decisions; (3) ask educators and students to conceive of democracy broadly to include community discussions, community action, public service, and protest politics; (4) ask students to conceptualize participation broadly to include workplace and community opportunities for participation; (5) encourage students to take into account the important relationships among gender, race, and class concerns in the participatory process; and (6) ask students to confront their assumptions regarding power and leadership as well as the sources of such assumptions. The specific course described focuses on the formulation of and responses to AIDS within three communities, the global, U.S. policy, and the art and theater communities. The curriculum proposal was intended to develop a course that allowed students to link learning outside the classroom in the form of community action or service with learning inside the classroom through reading and discussion rooted in the connection between democratic theory and democratic practice as reflected in timely public policy issues. (DK)

This paper presents findings of a study that examined how the internship experience serves as a rite of passage for the teacher making the transition to aspiring principal. The experiences of 54 participants in an administrator internship program at Bank Street College of Education in New York City were analyzed. Data were derived from analysis of the interns' journals, reflective papers, and field notes; a focus group session with graduates from two cohorts; and followup interviews with graduates. The participants' selection, entry, and joining processes are viewed from both institutional and individual perspectives, which set the stage for the internship as a rite of passage. Nearly all of the participants reported themselves changed during their internship experiences. They viewed themselves, their home-school principals, their mentor principals, other key personnel, and their teaching roles differently than before. Some began with doubts about the administrative role and evolved into enthusiastic aspirants. Recommendations are made that internships offer sociostructural supports, provide experiences related to stages of the passage, acknowledge the use of multiple ways of knowing, view principal roles in the wider societal context, and integrate administration and instruction. The appendix contains the program-evaluation form. (LMI)

This paper focuses on the experiences of two cohorts of teachers who participated in a series of inservice workshops designed to provide instruction and support for novice teachers. A case study approach is used to describe their changed perceptions and beliefs about teachers, teaching, and students during the first year of teaching. The teachers' views were examined in December of their first year and again in the following May. Their views are analyzed in terms of the roles of the teacher as carer for and nurturer of children, manager and controller, collaborator and learner, and in terms of the time-consuming nature of teaching and the teachers' sense of self. Data reveal that first-year teachers were imbued with feelings of self-doubt, insecurity, and aloneness. The most important factor that contributed to their growth as teachers was their development of a strong sense of self. The paper concludes that novice teachers' focus on sense of self is a necessary part of learning to become a teacher, and their sense of self and their sense of their students evolved simultaneously. Implications for mentorship programs and teacher education programs are discussed. (Contains 37 references.) (JDD)

This paper selectively reviews research on the relationship between topic interest and prior knowledge, and discusses the optimal association between these variables. The paper points out that interest has a facilitating impact on learning, and at least part of this effect must be ascribed to prior knowledge. While the interest-knowledge association may account for about 20 percent of the variance, 80 percent of the variance in the effects of interest may then be unaccounted for by prior knowledge, leaving a considerable portion of independent variance with which interest can affect learning. Research suggests that interest contributes to learning in the following ways: it seems to invoke deeper types of comprehension processes, leads to greater use of imagery, and may arouse a more personal and extensive network of relevant associations than are invoked by prior knowledge. Analysis of a model of interest-prior knowledge relationships suggests that categories of high interest and low knowledge, and low interest and high knowledge, are likely to be transitory. Suggestions are made to divide topic interest into specific and domain interests. The advantages of educational research on interest or curiosity are discussed. (Contains approximately 55 references.) (JDD)

Findings of a paper that examined the effect of different attendance policies on student attendance and achievement are presented in this paper. Analysis of class records of 401 college students enrolled in four child development courses taught from fall 1989 to spring 1990 indicated that there were significantly more absences if attendance was not required, and that there was a modest negative correlation between the number of absences and class grade average. The "not required explicit" policy, which explicitly states that attendance is not required and explains the correlation of absences with lower grades, is recommended because it allows students to make informed decisions and simplifies the teacher's work. Two tables are included. (LMI)

Teacher education programs rarely help teachers develop those attitudes and skills that will enable them to identify and speak out for that which they know and value. This research reports on a preservice program based on the assumption that by systematically requiring teachers both to reflect on their own practice and to seek out and respond to the reflections of other teachers, teacher education programs can help teachers develop their own professional voice and that of their colleagues. This paper describes the evolution of the researcher's own voice and the theoretical considerations from which the research emerges. These considerations relate to the social context of teaching--the structure of the school, the culture of teachers, and the concept of teaching as gendered labor. In addition, the paper discusses a preservice curriculum designed and implemented in response to the perceived need for teacher education programs to help teachers develop a professional voice and the methodology through which the response to this curriculum was studied. The data indicate that the development of a teachers' voice can be enhanced by appropriate teacher education curriculum and methodology. Implications for teacher education are discussed. Thirty-one references are listed. (IAH)

This paper reflects the feelings, efforts, difficulties, and frustrations of an education professor who re-examined his attempts to develop an approach to pedagogy that is autobiographical, dialogical, and collaborative, in which the curriculum is built around students' experiences and centered on student voice. The experiences recounted focus on a course entitled "Advanced Child Development for Teachers," a university requirement for inservice teachers studying for their master's degree. The primary goal of the course was that students would come to terms with the possibility of learning as a constructivist process that includes the active participation of the learner in the process of meaning-making. A second goal was that the teachers become conscious of themselves as teacher-researchers, rather than as passive recipients of received wisdom about pedagogy. The classroom was intended to foster a nurturing environment; the assignments included a reflective dialogue journal. The paper presents excerpts from the journals of both students and professor. The excerpts reveal the difficulties involved in developing a self-reflexive pedagogy and the professor's feelings of failure and inadequacy. (JD)

This paper discusses the historical relationship between people with disabilities and the rest of society. It describes the period from World War I through World War II as one of humanitarianism during which the development of a limited number of adaptive devices helped people with disabilities adjust to their disabilities as much as possible. The time since World War II is described as a period in which a proliferation of organizations lobbied for a social transformation. Rather than merely training the disadvantaged to compete better, these organizations insisted that society itself had been structured in ways that caused the disadvantage. The solution was to modify society for equal opportunity, not only to better equip those who were struggling to get ahead. This paper describes the different adaptations and assistive devices that were developed, key individuals who, despite their disabilities, achieved international recognition, and changes in the social attitudes towards those with disabilities. (CR)

This document consists of three papers which explore aspects of language use in science classrooms descriptively and prescriptively, based on naturalistic and experimental observations. The discovery of the importance of the verbal mode of communication through involvement in creating computer-based activities is discussed. Papers include: (1) "Words and Science" (Jan Hawkins and Laura M. W. Martin), in which the thematic questions that tie the papers together are outlined; (2) "Taking Notes and Taking Note of Physics" (Babette Moeller, Jan Hawkins, Cornelia Brunnmer, and Sol Magzamen), in which words are regarded as a contributing medium to achieving understanding of physics concepts; and (3) "Computer Networking and the Connection of Science and Literacy Skills" (Shelley V. Goldman and Carol Reich), which reports on a study of language and communication in a classroom of deaf students. (CW)

Beginning in 1981, the Bay Shore (New York) School District initiated comprehensive changes in its instructional program. The process, which involved long range planning for 1982-1987 and 1987-1992, used focus groups, survey data, community input, and school-based feedback. Several of the overall goals of these plans are concerned with assuring equal education opportunities for all students, regardless of socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, gender, or handicapping condition. This paper summarizes the school district's efforts to bring about positive changes and increase student achievement, and presents an overview of data and results that indicate substantial gains by at-risk students. Bay Shore's long-range planning, accomplished through a participative-consultative leadership model, elicited contributions from a broad cross section of the educational community. Major action objectives of the two plans focused on instructional development, program evaluation, and staff development. Each of these three foci has facilitated closing the achievement gap between White majority students and Hispanic and Black minority students. The paper includes discussion of the implementation and evaluation of a full-day kindergarten program, effects on minority group students and students from lower income backgrounds, and referrals to special education and remedial mathematics and reading. Students' achievement in mathematics as measured by New York State tests rose from 87% of students exceeding the State Reference Point (SRP) to 100% of students exceeding it, while reading achievement rose from 79% to 89% of students scoring above the SRP. (AF)

The purpose of this study is to trace the learning, dispositions, and professional development of the first group of preservice secondary mathematics teachers as they make transitions from college freshmen to student teachers to first year teachers. Research questions are addressed as: (1) How participants' knowledge, beliefs, and goals are affected by their experiences in an innovative, reform-based, four-year secondary mathematics teachers preparation program that engages them in a variety of learning communities, then how these cognitions are revealed in their instructional practice as student teachers and as certified classroom teachers; and (2) how participants' behaviors are as undergraduate college students related to their behaviors as certified secondary mathematics teachers and the behaviors they expect from students in their school-level classes. Based on the findings from the study, implications for preservice secondary mathematics teacher preparation programs are proposed in this paper. (KHR)

Career counselors and job search coaches must be prepared to assist disabled clients as this sector of the labor market increases. As the work force ages, there are greater numbers of workers dealing with disabilities and serious health problems. Sadly, individuals with disabilities often approach the job search process with misconceptions, misinformation, limited expectations, and fear of failure. Counselors must give these applicants the skills and confidence they need to be marketable candidates that employers will want to hire. This paper provides insight into the problem and offers techniques for helping clients increase their self-confidence, improve their job search skills, and prepare for job interviews. The author addresses the emotional barriers that many disabled job seekers place in their own path and gives practical advice on how to remove these road blocks. This information can be used with the most-needy clients to help them attain appropriate and satisfying employment. (Author)

This presentation on the preparation of early childhood teachers addresses implication of multiculturalism and bilingual education in early childhood programs. The purpose of the presentation was threefold: (1) to increase understanding of bilingualism and multiculturalism; (2) to compare and contrast bilingualism and multiculturalism; and (3) to explore implications for the preparation of teachers and the development of strong early childhood programs. Following a brief overview, the first section of the paper addresses "Bilingual Education," including the acquisition of English, bilingualism and cognitive development, bilingualism and social development, and bilingualism and parental involvement. The second section addresses "Multicultural Education." The final section addresses implications for early childhood teacher preparation programs. This section asserts that teacher education programs must: (1) provide opportunities and encourage faculty and teacher education students to reflect on their own values; (2) provide internships at community based organizations serving many cultures; (3) teach ways of working with non-English speaking young children; and (4) encourage students to become pedagogically proficient in a language other than English. This section also contends that preschools and daycare centers must: (1) have a bilingual education program in place; (2) provide support in nurturing bilingual programs; (3) create culturally sensitive recruitment procedures; and (4) encourage staff diversification. (SD)

Fewer women than men serve on local school boards despite the fact that female volunteers in schools outnumber male volunteers. This paper presents findings of a study that explored the barriers and facilitators to women's participation on school boards, as well as women's motivations. Data were obtained from four focus groups composed of 7-10 women each, distinguished by their different levels of involvement in the school system. The most involved group included women with actual school-board experience, and the least involved group included women who did not volunteer at schools. Indepth interviews were conducted with one woman from each focus group. All groups shared a similar motivation for running for office--the desire to make a difference in the educational system. Barriers to participation included lack of self-confidence, fear of not being taken seriously, socioeconomic factors, and the presence of young children at home. Women most likely to seek school-board office had high levels of self-esteem and personal efficacy, a family income over $50,000, older children, and previous volunteer experience; they were also between 35 and 44 years of age, well educated with college experience, dissatisfied with the education system, and not employed full-time outside the home. Three figures and the interview guide, and individual interview questions are included. (Contains 27 references.) (LMI)

Literature emerged at the beginning of this decade indicating that girls' and boys' differential experiences in schools frequently marginalized the girls and had negative impacts on their futures. This paper presents findings of a study conducted in a New York City independent day school to explore whether and how student attitudes and beliefs differed by gender. The students came predominantly from middle- and upper-middle-class families of European descent. Data were obtained from a survey of 362 students (192 males and 170 females) in grades 4-12. Students were asked about their favorite subjects, class participation, how they spent their free time, work habits, how they reacted to criticism and compliments, their use of computers, and adjectives that most described them. The most disturbing finding was that both boys and girls reported that girls were held to lower standards in meeting some of their school responsibilities. The ways in which males and females saw their world, however, was more similar than different. Girls said that they wanted to participate in classrooms more often; both genders cited fear of being wrong as the reason for not participating. Females most frequently identified themselves as creative, caring, intelligent, polite, honest, and hardworking. Males most often identified themselves as athletic, humorous, creative, intelligent, polite, honest, and curious. (Contains eight references.) (LMI)

International organizations and researchers in the field of education and development have emphasized the importance of women's education for the social and economic development of Third World countries. However, women's educational levels are lower than men's in most countries throughout the world. This paper presents findings of a study that examined the impact of the educational gender gap on economic growth in developing countries. Methods involved correlation and regression analyses of two data sets--"Data Set for a Panel of 138 Countries" (Barro and Lee 1994) and "World Tables 1993" (World Bank). Gender gap variables included years of schooling, educational attainment, and school-enrollment rates. Findings indicate that almost all of the educational gender gap variables, except for the percentage of the population completing primary education, had positive effects on economic growth. Gender gaps at higher levels of education tended to have a stronger positive impact on economic growth. Men's education had greater positive impacts on economic growth than did women's education. The surprising findings may be explained by the existence of a structural gender gap underlying the gap in education. In other words, there is another significant societal gender discrimination that makes the educational gender gap meaningless. Five tables are included. (LMI)

This paper explains the construction of a grading rubric that is designed to empower students with expectations of quality work. Teachers and students "negotiate" a mutually acceptable consensus. The contract process is based on the idea that when students feel they are valued participants in the assessment process, they become motivated to strive towards those criteria-based standards. The process can be used to set short-term goals for lessons that do not require formal assessment but for which quality work is expected. Samples of assessment sheets and student work samples are presented with criteria for evaluation. (EH)

Education is the key for economic growth and social development in developing countries. This paper presents findings of a study that analyzed the impact of overall educational expenditures on economic growth in developing nations. It also identifies the levels of education that should be allocated more public expenditures. The study used regression analysis of GNP (gross national product) data of over 140 countries obtained from the World Development Reports of 1982 and 1992 published by the World Bank. Findings indicate that the allocation of greater expenditures on education, especially on primary education, has a positive impact on countries' economic development. Three tables are included. (Contains 20 references.) (LMI)

Critics of academic tracking argue that it perpetuates society's existing social structure, which is unfairly organized and limited by race and class. This paper presents findings of a study that compared teaching practices in tracked and detracked high school classes in a small city in upstate New York. Four social-studies and four science teachers volunteered to teach the same 9th- and 10th-grade curricula to classes grouped and ungrouped by ability. Teachers were encouraged to use cooperative learning in their detracked classes as their primary instructional method. Classrooms were observed during the second year of the project, the 1995-96 academic year. Findings indicate that teaching in detracked classes fostered richer use of language and a variety of teaching methods than found in the tracked classes. Students and teachers reported a preference for cooperative learning. Results of statewide testing indicated no difference in overall achievement of students, whether in tracked or detracked classes. There was no evidence to support the notion that instructional practices in tracked classes were more effective or efficient. It is recommended that teachers learn how to adapt their instruction to a wider range of student achievement and interests within a single classroom. (LMI)

Education is a key for the economic growth and social development of developing countries. This paper presents findings of a study that analyzed how scarce resources should be allocated to the two types of secondary education--academic and vocational. Methodology involved correlation and regression analysis of World Bank data on the Gross National Products (GNPs) of over 100 countries and of educational expenditure variables from the UNESCO Statistical Yearbook, 1982. Findings indicate that the allocation of more inputs to academic education (in the form of expenditures, teaching staff, and pupils) had a positive effect on economic development. Countries that allocated more inputs to academic education in 1980 grew more rapidly throughout the decade than those countries that allocated fewer inputs. The data show that vocational education had some structural inefficiencies. Policymakers should allocate greater inputs to academic secondary education and increase the efficiency of secondary vocational education. Two tables are included. (Contains 12 references.) (LMI)

America has two conflicting visions of equality. The first evolved during the American Revolution through the 1960s, which is identified with the phrase "equality of opportunity." The second vision, advanced since the 1960s, embraces the concept of affirmative action to redress social injustices. In an attempt to reach accord on these conflicting visions of equality, the American public school has become one of several major battlegrounds. This paper examines these differing visions of equality as traditional and postmodern concepts, identifies their operational expression in the public schools, and reflects on the nature of America's conflict over equality. It also analyzes educational programs with the most potential to help Americans see each other as equals, and concludes that character education has the most potential for doing so. Character education, it is argued, would be a means for articulating the principles that America was founded upon--equality before the law, equal treatment by the state, and freedom as the guiding principle of society. Character education undergirds an understanding that individual success must be won, not provided. (Contains 139 references.) (LMI)

This paper stresses the concept of deaf students as visual learners. Educators are urged to think visually in order to help maximize opportunities for deaf students to use their visual learning skills in developing literacy skills, and in their general academic, social, and personal development. Examples are offered of structural/grammatical features of American Sign Language to show how this natural sign language uses space, sign movement, indexing, body shifts, eye gaze and facial expression, together with sign selection based on meaning, to provide clear visual communication for the following concepts and language structures: (1) appropriate pronoun usage/identification; (2) verb usage, with focus on active versus passive voice; (3) semantics/meaning of individual terms or phrases; and (4) dependent clause structures. (DB)