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This paper examines three groups of respondents (teachers, students, and principals) commonly surveyed in climate studies. The study sought to discover whether or not principals, students, and teachers agreed in their assessments of their school's disciplinary climate. The National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS: 88) was used to create a Likert scale comprised of identical survey questions for each of the three groups. The hypothesis was that if this common measure of school climate possessed adequate reliability, schools that were ranked highly by one group would be ranked highly by the other two. Data show little evidence to suggest that students, teachers, and principals agreed on their perceptions of their school's climate. Significant differences were found among the three groups regarding specific aspects of schools' disciplinary climate. For example, students were over four times more likely than principals to see conflict among students as a significant problem. Further, the three groups viewed discipline in substantially different ways. Principals tended to have more positive images of school discipline than did teachers, who in turn were more positive than students. Researchers and practitioners should exercise a level of caution when using the concept of school climate in research and school-improvement efforts. Six tables are included. Appendices contain correlations matrices and a list of items and item names used for each analysis. (Contains 32 references.) (LMI)

Foreign study has been growing worldwide since the end of World War II. There is a significant flow of students from less developed countries to more developed ones. This paper presents findings of a study that assessed two theories of development, modernization theory and dependency theory, and applied these theories to identify the impact of foreign study on national development. Modernization theorists assert the positive effects of foreign study and dependency theorists argue that foreign study has a negative effect on the home country. Methodology involved regression analysis of Gross National Product (GNP) data from 34 African countries contained in the World Bank's World Development Reports for 1972 and 1992, and from student population data from the UNESCO Statistical Yearbook, 1972. Findings support the modernization perspective on the effects of foreign study. The more students that a country sent to its former master country in 1970, the better economic performance the country achieved between 1970 and 1990. One explanation for the finding is that foreign study is an efficient mechanism for transferring the advanced technologies and skills for economic development from developed countries to developing ones. Another explanation is that foreign study is an effective means for professionals from developing nations to acquire negotiation skills for leading their home countries to economic development. However, the dependent variable, GNP per capita, does not reflect other kinds of development, such as political democratization, the adoption of cultural diversity, and the expansion of education. Foreign study may have negative effects on the home country that are less obvious than the positive ones. Two tables are included. (LMI)

This paper reports on a collaborative project with 20 preservice teacher education students to develop methods for working with curriculum integration of English and social studies. A portion of the methods class was team taught and involved the students in the preparation of interdisciplinary units on a young adult novel. This modeling of the process of integration followed a pattern of community building that was reflected in the student work. Through observation and student journal entries, the study showed that a valuable teaching technique was developed. Both students and professors were changed by the experience. (Author/EH)

This paper examines the consequences of principals' graduate training in educational administration for school effectiveness and asks: Are schools led by administrators with extensive, formal preparation more effective than schools led by principals with little or no graduate training? The data were derived from the School and Staffing Survey (SASS), sponsored by the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) and conducted by the U.S. Bureau of the Census during 1987-88, a nationally representative sample of the public and private elementary and secondary schools at that time. Of the total sample of 12,830 schools, a subsample of 6,341 elementary, junior high/middle, and high schools was analyzed. Five measures of school effectiveness were created. Then multiple analysis of variance and covariance was used to relate these measures to the level and type of training principals had received, controlling for several confounding influences. No evidence was found to suggest that principals' graduate training in educational administration improves the effectiveness of public elementary and secondary schools. It is recommended that further evidence be gathered before requiring graduate training for school administrators. Five tables are included. Contains 31 references. (LMI)

Mathematics learning and practice in school and out of school differ in some significant ways which are explained by the fact that: (1) problem in everyday situations are embedded in real contexts that are meaningful to the problem solver; and (2) the mathematics used outside school is a tool in the service of some broader goal. This paper discusses research which examined mathematics practice in everyday work situations by comparing in-school and out-of-school practice. It presents a framework for gaining insight into the interplay between socio-cultural and cognitive developmental processes through the analysis of practice. Discussion of the research illustrations includes goals of the activity, conceptual understanding, and flexibility in dealing with constraints. Suggestions for teachers in connecting in-school with out-of-school experiences are given. Contains 25 references. (MKR)

Students may be able to perform strictly manipulative mathematics and not be able to solve word problems or understand more complex mathematical concepts due to weak reading skills. This paper discusses the interrelationships between mathematics and language. First, highlights from research are given. Following is a discussion of characteristics of urban college students. Finally, suggestions to minimize the effects that reading has on students' mathematics performance are given, including text selection, textbook use, lectures, and assignments. The appendix contains a homework assignment to help students become more familiar with their textbook. (MKR)

Findings of a study that determined factors of beginning teachers' work and career choice commitment and retention are presented in this paper. The data consisted of a nationally representative sample of first-year K-12 public and private, full- and part-time teachers derived from the 1987-88 Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS). The final subsample consisted of 561 first-year teachers. Regression analysis was conducted to determine the relationship between several independent variables and three dependent variables--work and career-choice commitment and planned retention. Overall, findings support the hypothesis that teachers' perceived and actual workplace conditions are strongly related to their work commitment, career-choice commitment, and planned retention. This is especially true with respect to perceived school/leadership culture and perceived teacher autonomy/discretion. To help retain beginning teachers, it is recommended that school systems provide collaborative and supportive school leadership, increase teacher participation in decision making, and provide opportunities for new teachers to participate in professional development schools. (LMI)

This paper reports on a study investigating teacher and student attitudes toward grade retention. Questionnaires were completed by elementary, middle, and high school teachers (N=37), and high school students (N=62). The student population was organized into two groups: (1) grade repeaters; and (2) a control group composed of an equal number of nonrepeaters. Grade repeaters were asked about their own retention experiences and the experiences of acquaintances; the control group was questioned only about acquaintances. Teachers were asked to rate the effectiveness of retention on students they had taught. Information was then integrated with previous studies. Results suggest that across all groups, scholastic benefits of retention were viewed as exceeding emotional benefits; grade repeating students recalled considerable distress at the time of retention, but over time most came to view it as an academically positive event; both teachers and students were doubtful about the reported benefits of retention, and it is suspected they would prefer a different approach. Teacher and student attitudes are displayed in tabular form. (Contains 15 references.) (LL)

Findings of a study that developed and applied a microfinancial model to track financial resources through the school systems are presented in this paper. The School Site Allocations Model (SSAM) shifts the current finance structure to the schools. First, the model was designed and tested in 30 school districts across the United States. Next, data from the test sites were analyzed to provide indicators of the range of costs required to operate the central offices and schools in 25 school systems, and the use of funds for administration, operations, staff development, student support, and instruction at both central offices and schools. A conclusion is that the SSAM effectively reported the uses of funds by schools and by function, by level, and by type. District administrators and staff found the model to be "user friendly." Once costs were allocated by location and function, districts were able to track funds to each school and classroom level. Several superintendents reported that the SSAM data allowed them to save money, improve programs, and reassure the voting public. Also, statewide application of the model can play an important role in the school-reform movement. Thus, money does matter, it seems, as long as the resources reach schools, classrooms, teachers, and pupils. Twelve tables and four figures are included. (Contains 16 references.) (LMI)

This paper addresses the relevance of multicultural education in rural areas, particularly rural schools with a majority white population. Multicultural education does not lend itself to a single set of methods nor to a single curriculum. For example, one approach enhances the educational opportunities of members of minority groups, while another approach addresses diversity within the larger society and the world. In the past two decades researchers have found that rural residents were less tolerant than urban dwellers toward civil liberties, sexual nonconformity, religious and political nonconformity, support of minority office-seekers, and racial and ethnic minority groups. Additionally, rural white residents tended to view education about minority groups as irrelevant to their communities. Population trends indicate increasing growth in metropolitan areas and decreasing growth in rural areas. With this population shift, the gap between rural and urban incomes has widened. Rural schools could become instrumental in improving rural economies but have been criticized as being inadequate in preparing students for changing economic and social realities. Multicultural education could become instrumental in rural school reform by sparking examination of teaching strategies, curriculum, staffing, and school organization, and by addressing respect for cultural and ethnic diversity. Further research examining possible links between rural schooling and multicultural education are discussed. (LP)

This paper by a public school teacher and elected official with 32 years' experience in public education discusses the placement of minority students and service delivery to minorities in special education programs in public school systems. The paper argues that various school practices often cause a disproportionate placement of minorities in special education programs and that a number of societal factors make the problems of at-risk minority students even more difficult and unpredictable. In addition, the demographic revolution of the past decade has brought about a degree of linguistic and cultural diversity that profoundly influences the country's social institutions. Schools are ill-equipped to deal with language minority students because of inadequate teacher training or inappropriate curricula, and, as a consequence, those students are placed in a special education programming track, as are many minority youngsters at-risk for other reasons, such as low self-esteem, peer pressure, inappropriate curricula, negative home environment, and, in some cases, a hostile school climate. It is proposed, however, that general education programs properly adapted can serve a large number of students currently placed in special education programs. Recommendations are made to prevent the overrepresentation of minorities in special programs and to improve the placement process of children with special needs, and systems to assure adequate service delivery for this population are presented. A reaction paper by Tennyson J. Wright adds to these recommendations, noting that educators need to be educated about the real America of minority populations; that Americans need to develop an appreciation of differences as human and natural; and that a liberal education of inclusion relative to racial, cultural, gender, disability, class, and language differences needs to be developed. A second reaction paper, by Julian Castillo, points out that an understanding of the sub-groups encompassed in the term Hispanic is needed, that programs need to address the issue of accountability, and that effective preschool programs and individual service planning are needed for minority group students. (Contains 12 references.) (JDD)

Economic and demographic changes in the United States signal a new mission for education--one in which the schools are responsible for ensuring that all students learn. This paper argues that this changed mission requires a new paradigm for school reform policy, one that shifts from designing controls intended to direct the system to developing capacity that enables schools to meet students' needs. Contradictions between the old and new paradigms are evidenced in different educational policy assumptions and goals. The first paradigm views students as passive, favors top-down governance, and uses research to design one best plan. The new paradigm recognizes that effective teaching techniques vary for different students and produces knowledge with and for teachers. Recommendations are made for reframing the school reform agenda with regard to the following three components of an infrastructure necessary to support lasting change: professional, policy, and political development. A conclusion is that the new paradigm for school reform must seek to develop communities of learning grounded in communities of democratic discourse in order to create an education for empowerment and freedom. (24 references) (LMI)

Findings of a study that examined the relationship of students' perceptions of parents' and teachers' involvement and autonomy support to student motivation are presented in this paper. Based on a larger process model of academic achievement (Ryan and Stiller 1991), students' perceptions of parent and teacher autonomy support and involvement were hypothesized to predict student engagement, use of positive coping strategies, control understanding, and self-regulation. A questionnaire was administered to 208 male and 190 female seventh-graders and to 194 male and 163 female eighth-graders. Findings indicate that teacher and parent involvement were primary predictors of academic achievement, with teacher and parent autonomy support accounting for additional variance. Although teacher influences were more predictive of academic outcomes than those of parents, parents had an additional and important bearing on student experience. An academic environment that was experienced as providing student choice had the most impact on all four dependent variables of student motivation. A recommendation is made to utilize educational and community-based strategies that enhance teacher and parent involvement, with a focus on actively supporting student autonomy. Three tables are included. (Contains 23 references.) (LMI)

This paper reports the results of an empirical study on the role of finances on college persistence. A quantitative causal model, that relied on several theoretical frameworks, was tested via structural equation modelling for categorical data that incorporated constructs from the financial aid literature as well as the persistence literature. The research design was longitudinal in nature and analyses were conducted on a sample of 466 college students who were attending a large public urban commuter institution in the spring of 1989. In sum, results appeared to suggest that financial aid is important, not only because it equalizes opportunities between affluent and low-income students, but also because it facilitates the integration of the student into both the academic and social components of the institution as well as influencing his or her commitment to stay in college. Contains 51 references. (Author/GLR)

This paper offers guidelines for effectively integrating preschool children with disabilities in classrooms with nonhandicapped children. First, formal aspects of program integration including legislative requirements and the Child Find program to identify young children needing special services are reviewed. Next, program planning guidelines are offered concerning: when integration should begin; selection of a learning model; teacher/child ratios and schedules; staffing; evaluation; supports for staff; and development and use of personalized prescriptions. Finally, 20 ideas for teachers and caregivers are offered. These include: learn about each disability; know skill prerequisites; arrange the environment; be flexible about theory and practice; show physical affection; provide tactual real experiences; discipline wisely; and utilize parents as partners. (18 references) (DB)

While previous studies have correlated career indecision with state and trait anxiety in college students, most researchers have examined the relationship between anxiety and career indecision without considering other variables. This paper, incorporating previous research on career indecision, profiles a study of a causal model of career indecision based upon D'Zurilla's (1986) social problem-solving theory. The social problem-solving process portrays how an individual typically attends to and thinks about problems and assesses his or her problem-solving skills. For this study, researchers administered measures of trait anxiety, state anxiety, problem orientation, problem-solving skills, and career indecision to 120 students from a multiethnic, urban community college. Results indicate that anxiety can contribute to career indecision. Trait anxiety exerted a stronger indirect effect on career indecision than a direct effect while state anxiety was found to directly influence career ambivalence. Surprisingly, problem-solving skills did not modify career indecision when the other variables in the model were statistically controlled. Conclusions suggest that problem-solving training which focuses on helping the college student develop a positive problem orientation may be more effective in reducing career indecision than actual training in problem-solving skills. Included are two tables and three figures which present statistical summaries and model conceptualizations. (RJM)

This paper describes a study of the socioemotional functioning of middle-class male and female preschoolers who had experienced varying degrees of nonparental care during the infant/toddler period. A review of the literature revealed that previous research findings from child care programs were inconclusive about potential differential effects on socioemotional development of participation in groups as a function of the child's sex. Three groups of preschoolers (105 preschoolers) from nine different child care centers participated in the study. Children in Group 1 had continuous, full-time, nonparental care that began prior to 9 months of age. Children in Group 2 had part-time, nonparental care that began prior to 9 months of age, and full-time nonparental care thereafter. Children in Group 3 had no full-time, nonparental care during the first 3 years of life, and had full-time nonparental care after the third year. Children's socioemotional behaviors were rated by teachers, and social interactions with peers and teachers were videotaped and coded. Mothers completed the Waters' Q-Sorts, which provide measures of child dependency and attachment. Results indicate that no differences between boys and girls could be attributed to differential effects of time of entry into child care. Appended are 28 references and a table of related material. (GLR)

During the period 1990-1991, a study was conducted of 13 deans and directors of continuing education who were in the first 3 years of their new positions. This group of newer deans and directors included some who were promoted to the position for the first time as well as those who had transferred from one deanship/directorship to another. The study identified factors that led to "easier" and "harder" transitions to the dean's or director's position and also how aspects of the job of leading a continuing education unit appear to change over time. The main determining factors for transitions seemed to be a familiarity with and understanding of the institution, experience in the director's role, and the value placed on continuing education at that institution. Directors having an"easier" transition had knowledge of the institutions, experience in the director's role, and were working in institutions in which continuing education was respected. The "outsiders," deans who were brought in from other institutions, were more experienced, had a broader sense of strategy, greater self-confidence, a stronger commitment to continuing education, and higher perceptions of support from the instituion than those who had been promoted. The paper recommends follow-up research at a later date to see if the "newness" advantage of the "outsiders" had worn off after 3 years. (11 references) (Author/KC)

This paper presents findings of a study that examined the effect of school organization on teachers' attitudes toward their work environments. The study compared the attitudes of teachers who work in schools with an interdisciplinary team organization (ITO) with those of teachers who work in schools with a traditional departmental organization (DEP) structure. Data were collected through: (1) a survey of 47 teachers from 2 ITO middle schools and 31 teachers from 2 DEP junior high schools, and (2) interviews with a random sample of 10 percent of the teachers in each school. ITO teachers expressed more positive attitudes toward their colleagues and described their principals as more effective goal-setters than did their DEP counterparts. ITO teachers reported that they experienced less isolation and increased collaboration, but viewed their input into the school decision-making processes as inconsistent. In addition, school organization did not significantly affect teachers' attitudes toward work, beliefs about professional life, or involvement in their school's decision-making process. The recommendation is made to provide teachers with more input into decisions that affect their work. Four tables are included. Contains 42 references. (LMI)

Findings are presented from a study of social interactions between hearing-impaired and hearing college students living on one floor of a mainstreamed residence hall at the Rochester (New York) Institute of Technology, home of the National Technical Institute for the Deaf. Twelve ethnographic observations were completed, and interviews were conducted with 20 residents. An ecological model is offered for describing and explaining social interactions. Four individual characteristics emerged as significant in explaining the interactions: reasons for selecting a mainstream floor and perceived advantages of living on a mainstream floor; communication skill; knowledge of one another; and feelings and attitudes toward hearing-impaired/hearing people. Environmental characteristics are also considered, including the physical setting, policies and rules related to student housing, stability of the environment, and campus culture and organization. The paper concludes with a discussion of how such a model can be used to study and explain interaction between hearing-impaired and hearing people within other contexts, including family, elementary and secondary school, and work. (JDD)

This paper examines the notion of teacher beliefs as complex ideological systems which have a bearing on actions. The focus is on the beliefs that students bring into their formal teacher education program, which are based on their predominantly authoritarian and didactic schooling experience. These students enter teacher education with unreflective and passive ways of knowing, and with beliefs about good teaching which were formed by their previous teachers. A discussion is presented on the reflective teaching program at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, which attempts to implement a genuinely reflective curriculum seeking to induce change in beliefs about teaching. Analysis of program results has indicated that students retained their pre-existing beliefs about teaching and learning irrespective of whether they were constructivist and critical or authoritarian and didactic. The permeability of the individual student's beliefs is considered, as well as questions on the effect that socialization agents, such as teacher preparation and entry into the culture of schooling, have on student teachers' implicit and explicit belief systems concerning the nature of teaching and learning. A list of 12 questions provides a basis for further research on evolving beliefs about teaching and their implications for preservice teacher education. (JD)

This paper outlines the assumptions about the work and working conditions of teachers evident in various practices of action research in education. First, a thorough analysis of documents from the period of action research in the post-World War II era in the United States is presented. Images of the work and workplace of teaching from this period begin to establish patterns to be pursued in looking at later work. The second section begins with an examination of the writings of Lawrence Stenhouse whose thoughts on the teacher-as-researcher have been influential in the development of action research, especially in the United Kingdom and Australia. The section concludes with a discussion of projects conducted in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Finally, issues in action research related to the work and workplace of teachers are identified, and their implications for current action research practices are discussed. (JD)

Social feminists insist on the relevance of personal experience and believe that, for changes to occur, it is essential to understand the dynamics of how and why gender roles are perpetuated. Social feminists view the career course of second-career teachers as vulnerable to the covert structures and curriculum of the schools. The social feminist position is documented throughout this paper. A case study discusses the biography of a 37-year-old woman, Sally, and provides data demonstrating the presence of gender socialization as a factor in her career course. Sally expressed the motivation for her career change in terms of traditional gender traits, such as nurturing and gentleness, and of the continuity between women's work as mothers in a family and as teachers in schools. At the same time, her decision to teach is rooted in her opposition to the system in which she was educated. Her career change can, therefore, be viewed as motivated by a commitment to the possibility of social change. The data emerging from this study indicate that biography affects career motivation and performance and that gender socialization is an important component in biography, having a significant influence on who teachers and, ultimately, on what is taught and how. Implications for teacher education and the conduct of teacher education programs are indicated. (JD)

This paper discusses the current role of practicing librarians in library education together with the debate on whether the grounding given to future librarians should be theoretical or practical. Reasons why students, educators, and employers are dissatisfied with the current status of library education are suggested. The benefits of librarians teaching library school courses are described, including the exposure of students to positive role models and the improved image of the librarian. Team teaching a course with a library school faculty member is suggested as one way for librarians to become involved in the educative process. Other suggestions for library participation in library education include setting up programs in the schools, giving input on curriculum, becoming involved in such faculty-student interaction as orientation, and becoming involved in the accreditation process. The importance of continuing education for librarians is stressed. (11 references) (MES)

Following a brief discussion of the value of poetry for gifted children, this paper outlines activities in a poetry unit for gifted children of middle school age. Addressed directly to students, the unit is divided into the following sections: (1) a list of behavioral objectives, which relate to responding to poetry, understanding poetic conventions, and writing poetry; (2) a test of students' knowledge about poetry, designed to be used as both a pretest and a posttest; (3) a list of ten activities involving reacting to the ideas in specific poems; (4) a list of 30 activities involving responding to the language in specific poems; (5) a list of six poetry writing activities; and (6) a description of a culminating activity in which the class creates a class poetry book. The paper also includes a list of poems to be read in the unit and a bibliography of poetry anthologies and books about English instruction. (GT)

The use of nontraditional adolescent literature in the secondary classroom and teacher training for this usage are discussed in this paper. After outlining a humanistic approach to adolescent literature, in which students are taught to use literature to illuminate their lives, the paper contrasts such an approach to the teaching of traditional literature, in which the emphasis is on understanding the text. It tells how certain societal changes have promoted the acceptance of adolescent literature as a serious genre and discusses the classroom focus on sociological, psychological, ethical, and ideological aspects of literary works. It next outlines the need for college methods courses in adolescent literature and presents guidelines for the selection of adolescent literature that are given to students in one methods course. The value of small group instruction in teaching adolescent literature is discussed, and suggestions are offered for the division of students into groups for class organization and for possible group activities. Finally, teacher-developed learning activity packets are described, the values of using them are listed, and suggestions are provided for incorporating questions and activities based on a hierarchy of thinking skills ranging from the factual to the conceptual and evaluative. (GT)

This paper presents an analysis of research on women in educational administration, identifying the issues which have been treated, examining the methodological perspectives of the research, determining the quality of the research, and formulating a paradigm for future research on women in education. One hundred fourteen doctoral dissertations on women in educational administration completed and abstracted from January 1973 through January 1979 were studied. The author of a typical dissertation is a female feminist working with a male advisor. The typical dissertation investigates the profile of the woman administrator, is approximately 175 pages in length, and tests no hypotheses. The paper and pencil questionnaire survey is the primary method of data collection, with the results analyzed according to descriptive methods. The overall quality of the dissertations is not high. The lowest quality is found in the sampling plans and the highest quality in the reviews of the literature. Only 35.86 percent of the studies make an overall contribution to the literature. The only variables to have consistent relationships to the quality of the dissertations are research issues, data collection methods, and the feminist standing of the researchers. (Author/PGD).

The purposes of this paper are: (1) to develop an understanding of three ways in which thinking and the development of foundational knowledge take place; (2) to identify a number of pertinent, empirically grounded examples of educational phenomena related to selected disciplines within the foundations of education; (3) to apply these three ways of thinking and the development of foundational knowledge to acquire a clearer understanding of the nature of the educational phenomena identified; and (4) to propose a strategy related to these three ways of thinking and the development of foundational knowledge which the field of educational foundations might pursue in order to identify and justify such knowledge as an essential component within the preparation programs of prospective teachers and administrators. One basic assumption undergirds this paper: It stipulates that the knowledges generated by the sub-disciplines represented by the broad category foundations of education, constitute powerful "tacit" structures which enable one to construct meaningful and useful critical interpretations of educational phenomena. (Author/JD)

This paper reviews some of the findings of research on classroom questions, and considers ways in which sociolinguistic theory may help resolve some questions it leaves unanswered. The paper is divided into three sections, which correspond to three features of questions. The three features are the "context" of questions, the "content" of questions, and the "responses and reactions" that teachers and students have to questions. The goal is to demonstrate that research on questions must minimally consider these three features, and identify ways of describing each of the features. Each of the three sections of the paper is divided into two parts, which discuss process-product and sociolinguistic research separately. The division enables keeping the assumptions and world-views of the paradigms distinct. Although the two paradigms concern themselves with different problems, they can inform each other. Sociolinguistics can suggest some of the facets of discourse that a process-product student should consider. Sociolinguists of education should consider the lessons of process-product research as well. (JD)

This paper challenges the traditional view that, in families of children with disabilities, mothers have the primary responsibility for child care because they are the "natural" caregivers. Family support services are an emerging way of delivering services to families of children with disabilities, and they seem to operate within a framework that accepts the traditional view of women as the "natural" caregivers. The rationale for family support programs focuses on the cost savings of providing care at home and the support of traditional family values. Caring, in its three identified forms (taking care of the child, caring about or loving the child, and caring about what happens to people with disabilities in general), is considered women's responsibility. Cultural stereotypes of men and women have significant influence on the way family support services are provided, and on the way that service providers view mothers and fathers of children with disabilities. The paper concludes that the disability rights movement and the women's movement may be in serious conflict, and that the disability field needs to develop a more sensitive perspective on women's issues to further efforts to achieve full community integration of people with disabilities. (JDD)

Beyond the usual knowledge of subject matter, the key contribution which the liberal arts can make to teacher preparation is in helping teachers develop good judgment, not only in general, but in how they present, re-present, and represent their knowledge to students. This paper explores how the liberal arts and sciences and the teacher education fields can come together to produce knowledgeable, effective teachers. The common wisdom concerning the role of the liberal arts in teacher preparation is explored, along with some of the essential contributions, and important limitations of these contributions. The often overlooked concept of the structure of knowledge as a key feature of the contribution of the liberal arts to the teacher education curriculum is elaborated upon. This paper goes beyond the static concept of the structure of knowledge to an examination of a dynamic concept of ways of knowing, or the notion of judging. (CB)

In the interest of offering universities new avenues for teaching students methods of video production, this paper presents a number of ideas for allowing students to practice their production skills out in the community. Following an introduction, the paper lists six types of community based productions suitable for students: (1) performance feedback record keeping, (2) commercials and public service announcements, (3) soundbites for local news/public affairs, (4) instructional programs (for other university professors or employees of local businesses), (5) documentaries, and (6) entertainment films. The paper notes that students can also enter projects in contests, and then lists several problems with community-based productions, including time restraints, equipment, and abuse of free labor by the community. A sample course outline concludes the paper, which suggests types of projects suitable for one or two semesters, and textbooks. Notes and two references are appended. (JC)

The paper looks at purposes of educational assessment of children with learning disabilities, assessment of the whole child, the plan for an assessment battery, the nuances of carrying out the assessment, and communication of the results to maximize appropriate follow up. Assessment purposes identified include screening, determining eligibility, and program planning. The importance of assessing the whole child--physically, intellectually, emotionally, and socially--is emphasized, and specific instruments are suggested to assess each of these areas. The assessment battery should be chosen for its usefulness in developing an educational plan. A sample language evaluation would examine spoken versus written language, and the student's use of phonology, morphology, and syntax. Guidelines for assessing reading and mathematics are discussed as are appropriate tests. Also briefly discussed is public versus private assessment and the importance of presenting the assessment report from a proactive position of helpfulness both to the parents and to the student. Numerous references to a handout with key points and examples of student assessment problems are included in the paper and the handout itself is appended. (DB)

This paper describes the work of one collaborative--The Consortium on Teacher Quality and Supply--that combined the energies of several organizations in order to respond to the minority teacher shortage. The consortium was comprised of six historically black colleges and universities in the south and three graduate institutions of education. Chronologically, the paper begins with the establishment of the consortium in 1987, the introduction of key players, and a discussion of aims. It then moves to the collaborative process the consortium underwent, explains the activities designed by the consortium to address the minority teacher shortage, and ends with a progress report on current consortium activities. Conceptually, the paper examines the collaborative process in relation to what the literature has to say about successful collaborations, and uncovers some new understandings about factors which help support and facilitate collaboration. (JD)

Research on school effectiveness points to administrative leadership as one of the critical factors in creating effective schools. There is perhaps no educational setting in which this relationship is stronger than the small rural school district. In 1988 a national survey of school administrators conducted by the State University of New York at Buffalo found that 349 of 1,123 respondents were from rural districts. This paper presents the perceptions of these rural administrators on: (1) the quality of their graduate school training; (2) the relationship between theory-based training and experiential learning in administrative practice; (3) the importance of university-school district collaboration; (4) rural-urban differences in administrative salary and job satisfaction; (5) the extent of systematic in-service professional development available to administrators; (6) participation of women and minorities in rural administration; and (7) the impact of educational reform efforts on rural districts. These responses are compared to those of urban and suburban administrators and are discussed in relation to the deficiencies in administrator preparation reported in "Leaders for America's Schools," the 1987 report of the National Commission on Excellence in Educational Administration. Recommendations for pre-service education of rural administrators focus on preparing administrative generalists, providing exposure to rural settings through field experiences, and incorporating aspects of rural sociology and economics. This paper contains 21 references. (SV)

A 2-year ethnographic study of the intake process involving preschool-age Hispanic children at a school for the deaf formed the basis for this paper, which focuses on strategies that Hispanic hearing-impaired children develop in response to the sociocultural world of the classroom. The struggle for "ownership" of the child, which begins when the child starts school in the United States, is described. The paper analyzes how the interactions of "First World" institutions with "Third World" peoples are present in the local setting and form the context out of which the child's identity is shaped. The focus is on the children's participation in forming social alignments in the classroom. Interactional scenes involving three Hispanic deaf children in three different classrooms are presented, describing: the scene itself; the family and home environment; and issues of agency, power, social structuration, and ideology. The three examples are then discussed in terms of their relevance to issues of class, ethnicity, and other aspects of the family's relationship to the school as a public institution and to society in general. (JDD)

This paper, presented at a conference of college admissions counselors, attempts to provide a brief overview of descriptive and inferential statistics for college admissions officers, in the hopes that it will encourage these admissions personnel to question assumptions more critically. The paper begins by defining statistics, specifically inferential statistics (the science of interpreting data to make predictions, estimates, or decisions). It goes on to explain why statistics are useful to college admissions officers. Variables are explained and the distinction between correlational and experimental research is discussed. The distinction between independent and dependent variables also is described. Measurement scales are discussed as they relate to different types of variables (nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio). Relations between variables are explored and the importance of those relations is considered. Samples and populations are discussed. Basic features of relations between variables are examined, statistical significance is explained, and how levels of significance are calculated is discussed. Finally, a number of basic statistical terms are defined, including frequency tables, crosstabs, chi-square, correlations, testing for differences in means between independent samples, t-tests, multiple regression, and nonparametric statistics. The paper concludes with a brief section on computer-based statistics programs. (NB)

This paper discusses a 3-year project to promote an international perspective within schools, colleges, and departments of education in the United States. Guidelines excerpted from this project's statement of purpose clarify the project's goals. These guidelines cover: (1) administrative leadership; (2) curriculum; (3) faculty development; (4) student awareness; (5) resources; (6) service to local school districts, community agencies, and businesses; and (7) research. The paper discusses basic expectations for educators and professors who are involved in international education programs and plan to apply in their classrooms, schools, and programs those principles which affirm racial and cultural diversity. These principles include: self-understanding; understanding and acceptance of pluralism; and an affirmative approach to implementing international/multicultural education in the total school environment. The working goals for any effective foreign student program are listed, and the benefits of the global perspective to colleges and universities are described. (JD)

A mother of two adopted deaf sons, who is also a faculty member at the National Technical Institute for the Deaf, explores the roles of parents and teachers in forming an educational team. The paper aims to help educators understand the difficulties faced by parents of deaf children. The paper's 15 considerations in the relationship between parents and teachers include: (1) remember that teachers choose to work with deaf children, but parents did not choose to have deaf children; (2) get acquainted with the family or home situation of the child; (3) don't assume the parents know much about deafness; (4) parents are not to blame for all their children's difficulties; (5) be aware of the ramifications of the various communication methodologies before pushing a "pet" one onto parents; (6) try to help parents learn the communication mode preferred by the child; (7) parents can help teachers get what they think a child needs, and can help teachers meet their own needs as well; (8) give parents good news more often than bad news; (9) help integrated deaf children and their parents get to know deaf adults or at least older deaf students; (10) give parents information about the child's program in writing; and (11) help parents to see that equal access and equal opportunity also mean equal responsibility. (JDD)

The continual development of a body of knowledge about inservice education requires attention to data collection, conceptual clarity, and the need for a self-correcting theory through which research proceeds. This paper is divided into four separate discussions: (1) the difficulties of developing a clear concept of career education, (2) minimal specifications necessary for developing theoretical structures, (3) the ingredients of data collection for preparing professional educators, and (4) the role of policymakers and the effects of organizational change. The paper concludes that the best arrangement between individuals and organizations is the one in which there is reciprocation of satisfaction and self-fulfillment. (Author/LD)

When consumers perceive a lessening in the value of any particular good or service provided by a free-market private enterprise, the likelihood of exit (that is, their choice of an alternative provider) is high. Parents of students enrolled in public schools, on the other hand, typically have not been able to choose an alternative service provider. In 1991 Minnesota became the first state to establish charter schools as an alternative means of funding and organizing the delivery of public education. During the 2-year period of 1999-2001, 23 new charter schools began operation in the state of New York. From these operating charter schools, five schools were selected for inclusion in this study. Of the 145 surveys distributed to the parents of approximately one-third of the enrolled students in each of the schools, 39 useful responses were obtained (27 percent). The survey instrument was designed to obtain information on: (1) factors that influenced the decision to enroll in the charter school; and (2) the type of relationship parents had with the students' previous schools. The statement, "Personnel at my child's previous public school were not sufficiently responsive to my concern as a parent" was judged to be first among the items that influenced the decision to transfer schools; it was most uniformly agreed to be a factor. Considering Hirschman's model of exit, voice, and loyalty, one can hypothesize that at least among this small sample of parents of charter-school students, the failure of the previously attended public school to attend to parents'"voice" became a significant issue for parents. (Includes a questionnaire.) (DFR)

A path analytic study examined the effects of career decision-making self-efficacy on the retention of underprepared adults in postsecondary education. The initial sample consisted of 418 underprepared students enrolled in the developmental education unit of a large midwestern urban university who had been subjects of a 1991 study and who represented a 61.7% response rate. Of those students, 398 completed the Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy (CDMSE) scale and the Fox (1986) revision of the Pascarella and Terenzini Institutional Integration Scale (IIS) and were then randomly separated into 2 groups. A principal components analysis was performed with each group for two subsets of items from the IIS thought to measure students' commitment to the institution and to obtaining a degree and integration into college and 50 items from the CDMSE survey. A model was developed to describe the role of the following variables in student persistence: intention to persist, cumulative grade-point average, academic integration, social integration, goal commitment, and degree utility. It was concluded that those nontraditional students who believe college will give them opportunities for employment and better careers are most likely to persist in postsecondary education. (Contains 49 references.) (MN)

First in a continuing series of reports on trends in marketing and publication of software for literacy education, a study explored the development of a database to track the trends and reported on trends seen in 1995. The final version of the 1995 database consisted of 1011 software titles, 165 of which had been published in 1995 and 846 published in previous years. Software were classified into 6 major categories. Results indicated that (1) an enormous amount of software is available for use by teachers of reading and literacy; (2) drill and practice software was the largest category of software available; (3) the publication rate of software for instruction does not appear to be slowing; and (4) in 1995, the number of new titles in the 3 largest categories (drill and practice, electronic books, and applications) was about the same. Further analyses will provide more detailed examinations of other aspects of the topic, developed from the database. (Contains 1 table of data and 7 references. A 23-item list of software publishers and distributors is attached.) (RS)

An innovative method for teaching creativity and leadership to adults was presented to engineers and executives within a high-technology corporation who wished to overcome fear of failure and the inhibiting influences of stress within their industry. The methodology developed was based upon prior research conducted in the area of self-directed adult art education. The workshop started with "lizard therapy," a way of reframing the conference room and its inhabitants. Each participant was given a template of a lizard that they were to cut out and color. They then placed their lizards on a picture of a stone wall in areas of their choosing. The participants created a colony and then talked about life as a reptile and why each lizard inhabited a specific location on the wall. Although the participants were initially baffled, they became totally involved in the activity. The exercise helped the engineers to think more creatively, as several expressed in their end-of-workshop evaluations. The course highlighted the importance of modifying the corporate culture through collective individual behavior so that the environment could become more hospitable to creative behavior. It demonstrated that having fun at work and acting creatively were compatible with being professional and productive. (Contains 12 references.) (KC)

College outdoor professionals are often simultaneously administrators, educators, and managers of student leaders. The manager role may be lost in the shadow of the others, yet can be the most powerful in creating a successful outdoor program. This paper reviews some relevant management principles gleaned from the business world and suggests ways to put them into practice. A quality college program must have quality training for its student instructors. Thorough training ensures that staff can be independent and do not need to be told how to do their jobs. Feedback can be used to both train and manage outdoor leaders and can be a powerful motivator. In addition to good training, student instructors must be given the tools they need to do the job well. These tools can include short printed curriculum guidelines and tips for effective teaching, course checklists of things to do, a policies and procedures manual, and a goal-setting session prior to beginning new student-developed projects. Other strategies for personnel management include creating group unity and a family atmosphere through intense group experiences, all-staff retreats, newsletters, and continuing education; offering leadership opportunities within the organization; using self-evaluation as a means of improvement; and encouraging learning of new skills. Parameters specific to running a college outdoor program include remembering that student instructors are volunteers, setting timetables to encourage student attention to deadlines, and coping with the student criticisms that come with a family atmosphere. (SV)

The purpose of this study was to test hypotheses drawn from the social role model about the process that people use in deciding what other people are like, focusing on the difference that other people's age, race, and sex make. A sample of non-Latino White students (N=671) ranging in age from 18 to 81 years used the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) to rate a person in one of 12 target groups (a race-unspecified or African-American woman or man in their late 20s, late 40s or late 60s). Race-unspecified targets were almost always seen as non-Latino Whites. Old persons and women were seen as significantly more communal and less agentic in personality than younger adults and men, respectively. When students' estimates of the likelihood that the target they were rating was retired was controlled, the main effect for age of target in communal traits disappeared. This finding supports the interpretation that age stereotypes partly stem from perceivers' observations of people's social roles. (Author/JBJ)

A proposed model for adult art education focuses on helping adults learn and practice art throughout their lives. Emphasis is on enhancing self-direction or learner control of the learning process and continued learning. This new construct encourages art educators to recreate their classrooms based upon an appreciation of the varied and unpredictable domain of artistic creativity. In doing so, art educators can encourage adults to embrace a more flexible and personal approach to their own art education that is based less on mastering aspects of a "discipline" or "disciplines" and more on achieving meaning and satisfaction from their endeavors. (Author/YLB)

This guide is intended to be a resource for teachers of the newly arrived Hispanic immigrant child. The number of children who enter U.S. schools without knowledge of English or whose first language is Spanish is growing and will continue to grow. Teachers will need to meet the challenge of educating students whose native language is not English and whose lack of proficiency in the English language presents a barrier to learning. Hispanic culture is family-oriented and allocentric, with high values given to politeness and formality. To illustrate specific countries of origin of Hispanic immigrant students, the economic and political conditions of six Latin American countries are described along with their literacy rates, educational systems, and unique customs. Differences between Spanish and English pronunciation and grammar are summarized to help the teacher understand why students are making specific errors how they can be helped to correct them. A brief classroom guide to Spanish for the teacher is provided with vocabulary and simple phrases. (Contains 17 references.) (JLS)

Television teaches children gender-specific behaviors, attitudes, characteristics, and personality traits. Research indicates that by observing male and female characters on television, children learn to label certain characteristics and behaviors as masculine or feminine and to assign traditional sex-role stereotypes to careers. Content studies of televised portrayals of professional women reveal a long history of under-representing and stereotyping women. A study examined televised portrayals of female characters on five episodes of each of four children's educational science programs ("Mr. Wizard's World,""Beakman's World,""Bill Nye the Science Guy," and "Newton's Apple"). Results indicated that children's educational science programming represented three times as many male as female characters, and twice as many adult male scientists as adult female scientists. Female characters were portrayed as pupils or apprentices, laboratory assistants, science reporters, and expert scientists. However, of the 82 female characters observed, 69 female characters were portrayed in secondary roles as students, laboratory assistants and science writers. Noticeably few adult female characters were portrayed as expert scientists or in positions of high prestige within the scientific community. (Contains 47 references and one table of data.) (Author/RS)

This study investigated the effect of long-term professional social agency support on the level of stress perceived by mothers (N=65) of preschoolers with disabilities. Mothers completed the Questionnaire on Resources and Stress (QRS-F) and the Holmes and Rahe Social Readjustment Rating Scale. The hypothesis that stress is greater for mothers of children with a severe rather than mild disability was supported. Mothers caring for an infant under 2 years of age reported more stress than the mothers of preschool-aged children. Sex of child was not related to maternal stress. Married mothers reported higher stress than single parents. Maternal stress was modified by program support regardless of high or low socioeconomic status (SES), welfare recipient status, or extent of personal support network. Responses on the QRS-F revealed that mothers did not tend to see the child as the cause of family problems or as a burden. Single, low-SES mothers seemed to profit especially from sustained professional supports from the time of the infant's birth. Tables detailing the study's findings are attached. (Contains 14 references.) (DB)