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The aim of the study was to characterize the gelling effect of candelilla wax (DW) using different types of cold-pressed vegetable oil (sunflower oil, olive oil, walnut oil, grape seed oil and hemp seed oil). The structuring of the oleogels was achieved by hot incorporation of oil with different percentages of carnauba wax, as follows: 3%, 5% and 11%. Characterization of the oleogels was done by determining the chemical and physical properties of the oleogels, the oil binding capacity and the texture of the oleogels were determined. The color differences were highlighted by the CIE Lab color scale for evaluating the lightness index (L*), components a and b. Candelilla wax showed a strong gelling capacity of over 99.70% for the addition of 11% and capacity minimum of 74.34% for the 5% addition. The value of the peroxide index decreased when the oleogelator concentration increased. The rheological properties were determined by measuring the viscoelastic parameters. The frequency sweep test showed that the storage modulus, loss modulus and viscosity of candelilla wax oleogels were increased with increasing wax concentration. The obtained results demonstrate the fact that candelilla wax can be used in small concentrations to obtain oleogels with a solid texture and easy to incorporate into food products as solid fat substitutes. Harder oleogels, obtained by adding 11% wax, can be effective in delaying oil oxidation during storage. Therefore, these oleogels illustrate that candelilla wax can be of great value in the food field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The extrusion process is recognized as the most versatile processing technology, and it can be used to produce food with higher nutritional, functional, and sensory qualities. The extrusion process involves forcing a mixture of ingredients through a small die under controlled conditions of temperature, pressure, and shear. This review highlights the main effects of the process parameters (feed rate, feed moisture, screw speed, barrel temperature, raw material characteristics, etc.) and system parameters (specific mechanical energy, residence time, product pressure, and temperature, etc.) on the features of extruded products (expansion ratio, bulk density, texture and color parameters, water absorption capacity, swelling capacity, thermal properties, sensory characteristics, etc.). Extrusion conditions can decrease the expansion ratio and increase bulk and apparent density. When humidity decreases and temperature increases, the Maillard reaction improves, while screw speed negatively affects color change because it influences residence time. Product final porosity, texture, and moisture content are also subject to various changes. The extrusion process can lead to changes in particle size distribution, influencing the mouthfeel and sensory attributes of the product. At high temperatures, screw speed and low moisture, water absorption capacity can decrease, whereas, at low screw speed, it increases. The effects of extrusion parameters on these properties can vary depending on the specific ingredients and formulations used, and the interactions between different parameters can be complex, leading to intricate changes in the features of extruded products. Thus, more advanced research needs to be done. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]