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The current study investigated the role of visual short-term memory, working memory, and declarative memory as individual differences in the earliest stages of vocabulary and syntactic learning in "Duolingo"-based language instruction. Thirty-eight L1-Greek adults completed memory tasks and engaged in learning Navajo on "Duolingo." Subsequently, vocabulary and syntax were assessed respectively via a word recognition, a word translation, and a grammaticality judgement task. Multiple regression analyses revealed an advantage for distributed practice both in vocabulary and syntax, after controlling for amount of practice. Further, declarative memory played a significant role in learning syntax and vocabulary, when measured in a word translation task. Extending the analysis for the first time to app-based environments, the results of the present study confirm the importance of declarative memory and distributed practice in adult acquisition of L2 vocabulary and syntax. [For the complete volume, "Intelligent CALL, Granular Systems and Learner Data: Short Papers from EUROCALL 2022 (30th, Reykjavik, Iceland, August 17-19, 2022)," see ED624779.]

"Proceedings of International Conference on Humanities, Social and Education Sciences" includes full papers presented at the International Conference on Humanities, Social and Education Sciences (iHSES) which took place on April 22-25, 2021 in New York, USA-www.ihses.net. The aim of the conference is to offer opportunities to share ideas, to discuss theoretical and practical issues and to connect with the leaders in the fields of humanities, education and social sciences. The conference is organized annually by the International Society for Technology, Education, and Science (ISTES)-www.istes.org. The iHSES invites submissions which address the theory, research or applications in all disciplines of humanities, education and social sciences. The iHSES is organized for: faculty members in all disciplines of humanities, education and social sciences, graduate students, K-12 administrators, teachers, principals and all interested in humanities, education and social sciences. After peer-reviewing process, all full papers are published in the Conference Proceedings.

When too much visual stimuli is present, the phenomenon of clutter is known to degrade an individual's perception across a variety of domains, ranging from completing search tasks incorrectly, to decreasing reading speed when letters are too close together. However, research is lacking as to whether the negative effects of clutter impact learning when too many words are visible at any one given time. Furthermore, colour has been implicated in affecting clutter. Thus, the present study created a recognition experiment whereby 42 participants had to learn target words that were presented in black or red font and positioned amongst no clutter, clutter words (distractor words surrounded the target), and clutter non-words (sequence of random letters surrounded the target). Results found that words learned in isolation were identified faster and significantly more accurately than words learned in both forms of clutter. Although red target words did not eliminate the negative effects of clutter, red words did show a trend towards higher accuracy of recognition compared to black words. These results would appear to be explained by existing clutter theories that state the limits of attentional resources and short-term memory cannot process excess visual stimuli. These findings have real-world implications for establishing optimal reading formats to improve learning.

These proceedings contain the papers of the 16th International Conference on Cognition and Exploratory Learning in the Digital Age (CELDA 2019), held during November 7-9, 2019, which has been organized by the International Association for Development of the Information Society (IADIS) and co-organised by University Degli Studi di Cagliari, Italy. The CELDA conference aims to address the main issues concerned with evolving learning processes and supporting pedagogies and applications in the digital age. There have been advances in both cognitive psychology and computing that have affected the educational arena. The convergence of these two disciplines is increasing at a fast pace and affecting academia and professional practice in many ways. Paradigms such as just-in-time learning, constructivism, student-centered learning and collaborative approaches have emerged and are being supported by technological advancements such as simulations, virtual reality and multi-agent systems. These developments have created both opportunities and areas of serious concerns. This conference aims to cover both technological as well as pedagogical issues related to these developments. Main tracks have been identified. However, innovative contributions that do not easily fit into these areas will also be considered as long as they are directly related to the overall theme of the conference -- cognition and exploratory learning in the digital age. The CELDA 2019 Conference received 87 submissions from more than 25 countries. Out of the papers submitted, 48 were accepted as full papers for an acceptance rate of 55%; 15 were accepted as short papers and one was accepted as a reflection paper. In addition to the presentation of full, short and reflection papers, the conference also includes one keynote presentation from an internationally distinguished researcher, Baltasar Fernández Manjón, Director of the e-Learning Research Group e-UCM, Complutense University of Madrid (UCM), Spain. [Individual papers are indexed in ERIC.]

For the forty-second time, the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) is sponsoring the publication of these Proceedings. Papers published in this volume were presented at the annual AECT Convention in Las Vegas, Nevada. The Proceedings of AECT's Convention are published in two volumes. Volume 1 contains 37 papers dealing primarily with research and development topics. Papers dealing with the practice of instructional technology including instruction and training issues are contained in Volume 2. [For Volume 2, see ED609417.]

A consistent part of the literature shows the significant role of digital experience in digital natives' cognitive processes. The main goal of the current study was to investigate the impact of digital learning on the improvement of mathematical skills and on some change in cognitive processes in 166 primary school children from schools located in different parts of Italy. Participants were divided in two group: one group experienced the study of math mainly through digital tools, the other spent more time on pencil-and-paper trainings. All our participants were assessed with a battery of tests measuring numerical and cognitive abilities. Our results suggest the positive effect of a different type of training for the empowerment of visuo-spatial and numerical abilities. Specifically, effects of a digital experience are particularly evident in some specific numerical areas, such us accuracy, speed, semantic and syntactic numerical knowledge. Also, participants with greater experience of digital trainings score higher on spatial orientation. [For the complete proceedings, see ED600498.]

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between different components of active visuospatial working memory and math ability in young children. In a longitudinal study, we compared the contributions of active visual and spatial working memory (WM) tasks in early math performance at two times: the beginning of the first class of primary school (T1) and the end of the first class of primary school (T2). Two tests were conducted with 43 young participants to investigate active visual WM (Imaginative Puzzles) and active spatial WM (Corsi Backward). Measurements related to pre-math ability (BIN 4-6 test) at T1 and math skills (AC-MT 6-11 test) at T2 were accomplished. The relationship between visual and spatial WM and math ability was analyzed using a regression model in which the predictors were identified through a forward selection based on the use of the BIC index (Bayesian Information Criterion). Results show that at the beginning of primary school, basic knowledge of magnitude and numbers is strongly influenced by spatial WM. T1 pre-math performance is the sole predictor of mathematical performance at T2. These results suggest different implications of domain-general and domain-specific variable on early math performance, depending on the child's development period. This finding brings additional evidence to the debate on the relationship between visuospatial WM and math ability in young children. [For the complete proceedings, see ED600498.]

The aim of the 2018 International Association for Development of the Information Society (IADIS) Cognition and Exploratory Learning in the Digital Age (CELDA) conference was to address the main issues concerned with evolving learning processes and supporting pedagogies and applications in the digital age. There have been advances in both cognitive psychology and computing that have affected the educational arena. The convergence of these two disciplines is increasing at a fast pace and affecting academia and professional practice in many ways. Paradigms such as just-in-time learning, constructivism, student-centered learning and collaborative approaches have emerged and are being supported by technological advancements such as simulations, virtual reality and multi-agent systems. These developments have created both opportunities and areas of serious concerns. This conference aims to cover both technological as well as pedagogical issues related to these developments. Main tracks have been identified. However innovative contributions that do not easily fit into these areas will also be considered as long as they are directly related to the overall theme of the conference -- cognition and exploratory learning in the digital age. The CELDA 2018 Conference received 85 submissions from more than 31 countries. Each submission was reviewed in a double-blind review process by at least two independent reviewers to ensure quality and maintain high standards. Out of the papers submitted, 37 were accepted as full papers, 20 were accepted as short papers, and 5 were accepted as reflection papers. In addition to the presentation of full, short and reflection papers, the conference also includes one keynote presentation from internationally distinguished researcher, Professor Tobias Ley, Professor for Learning Analytics and Educational Innovation, Head of the Center of Excellence in Educational Innovation, Tallinn University, Estonia. Individual papers contain figures, tables, and references. An author index is provided.

In STEM domains, students are expected to acquire domain knowledge from visual representations that they may not yet be able to interpret. Such learning requires perceptual fluency: the ability to intuitively and rapidly see which concepts visuals show and to translate among multiple visuals. Instructional problems that engage students in nonverbal, implicit learning processes enhance perceptual fluency. Such processes are highly influenced by sequence effects. Thus far, we lack a principled approach for identifying a sequence of perceptual-fluency problems that promote robust learning. Here, we describe a novel educational data mining approach that uses machine learning to generate an optimal sequence of visuals for perceptual-fluency problems. In a human experiment, we show that a machine-generated sequence outperforms both a random sequence and a sequence generated by a human domain expert. Interestingly, the machine-generated sequence resulted in significantly lower accuracy during training, but higher posttest accuracy. This suggests that the machine-generated sequence induced desirable difficulties. To our knowledge, our study is the first to show that an educational data mining approach can induce desirable difficulties for perceptual learning. [For the full proceedings, see ED593090.]

This paper explores what we can learn from research that early cognitive processes support the development of children's mathematics skills. The role of two cognitive processes in working memory in the development of early mathematics was investigated: executive functions (EF) and visual-spatial (VS) ability. Children's mathematical skills were considered in relation to EF and VS. Recent research suggests that EF skills, which include monitoring and manipulating information in mind (working memory), suppressing distracting information and unwanted responses (inhibition) and flexible thinking (shifting), play a critical role in the development of mathematics performance. The number development also can be explained solely in terms of domain-general processes such as VS.

This paper attempted to make explicit some of the underlying characteristics of spatial visualisation using the concept of area of composite shapes. By engaging students with metric-free tasks, we identify the type of perceptual and visual/spatial manoeuvres that they deploy in such situations. Interview data collected from three students in Grade 7, 8, and 9 are used to exemplify three key constituents of spatial visualisation: figure-ground perception, global and local perception, and gesturing. An observable discontinuity was discovered in coordinating different pieces of spatial information after disembedding the parts that constitute the whole. This paper concludes with pedagogical implications.

This book contains a compilation of papers presented at the International Conference on Education and New Developments (END 2017), organized by the World Institute for Advanced Research and Science (W.I.A.R.S.). Education, in our contemporary world, is a right since we are born. Every experience has a formative effect on the constitution of the human being, in the way one thinks, feels and acts. One of the most important contributions resides in what and how we learn through the improvement of educational processes, both in formal and informal settings. The International Conference seeks to provide some answers and explore the processes, actions, challenges and outcomes of learning, teaching and human development. The goal is to offer a worldwide connection between teachers, students, researchers and lecturers, from a wide range of academic fields, interested in exploring and giving their contribution in educational issues. We take pride in having been able to connect and bring together academics, scholars, practitioners and others interested in a field that is fertile in new perspectives, ideas and knowledge. We counted on an extensive variety of contributors and presenters, which can supplement our view of the human essence and behavior, showing the impact of their different personal, academic and cultural experiences. This is, certainly, one of the reasons we have many nationalities and cultures represented, inspiring multi-disciplinary collaborative links, fomenting intellectual encounter and development. END 2017 received 581 submissions, from 55 different countries, reviewed by a double-blind process. Submissions were prepared to take form of Oral Presentations, Posters, Virtual Presentations and Workshops. The conference accepted for presentation 176 submissions (30% acceptance rate). The conference also includes a keynote presentation from an internationally distinguished researcher, Professor Lizbeth Goodman, Chair of Creative Technology Innovation and Professor of Inclusive Design for Learning at University College Dublin; Founder/Director of SMARTlab, Director of the Inclusive Design Research Centre of Ireland, Founder of The MAGIC Multimedia and Games Innovation Centre, Ireland, to whom we express our most gratitude. This conference addressed different categories inside the Education area and papers are expected to fit broadly into one of the named themes and sub-themes. To develop the conference program we have chosen four main broad-ranging categories, which also covers different interest areas: (1) In TEACHERS AND STUDENTS: Teachers and Staff training and education; Educational quality and standards; Curriculum and Pedagogy; Vocational education and Counseling; Ubiquitous and lifelong learning; Training programs and professional guidance; Teaching and learning relationship; Student affairs (learning, experiences and diversity; Extra-curricular activities; Assessment and measurements in Education. (2) In PROJECTS AND TRENDS: Pedagogic innovations; Challenges and transformations in Education; Technology in teaching and learning; Distance Education and eLearning; Global and sustainable developments for Education; New learning and teaching models; Multicultural and (inter)cultural communications; Inclusive and Special Education; Rural and indigenous Education; Educational projects. (3) In TEACHING AND LEARNING: Educational foundations; Research and development methodologies; Early childhood and Primary Education; Secondary Education; Higher Education; Science and technology Education; Literacy, languages and Linguistics (TESL/TEFL); Health Education; Religious Education; Sports Education. (4) In ORGANIZATIONAL ISSUES: Educational policy and leadership; Human Resources development; Educational environment; Business, Administration, and Management in Education; Economics in Education; Institutional accreditations and rankings; International Education and Exchange programs; Equity, social justice and social change; Ethics and values; Organizational learning and change, Corporate Education. This book contains the results of the research and developments conducted by authors who focused on what they are passionate about: to promote growth in research methods intimately related to teaching, learning and applications in Education nowadays. It includes an extensive variety of contributors and presenters, who will extend our view in exploring and giving their contribution in educational issues, by sharing with us their different personal, academic and cultural experiences. We would like to express thanks to all the authors and participants, the members of the academic scientific committee, and of course, to our organizing and administration team for making and putting this conference together. [This document contains the proceedings of END 2017: International Conference on Education and New Developments (Lisbon, Portugal, June 24-26, 2017).]

To succeed in STEM, students need to learn to use visual representations. Most prior research has focused on conceptual knowledge about visual representations that is acquired via verbally mediated forms of learning. However, students also need perceptual fluency: the ability to rapidly and effortlessly translate among representations. Perceptual fluency is acquired via nonverbal, implicit learning processes. A challenge for instructional interventions that focus on implicit learning is to model students' knowledge acquisition. Because implicit learning is non-verbal, we cannot rely on traditional methods, such as expert interviews or student think-alouds. This paper uses similarity learning, a machine learning method that can assess how people perceive similarity between visual representations. We used this approach to model how undergraduate students perceive similarity between visual representations of chemical molecules. The approach achieved good accuracy in predicting students' similarity judgments and expands expert predictions of how students might perceive visual representations of molecules. [For the full proceedings, see ED592609.]

This article describes a visual language comprised of abstract shapes that has been shown to be effective in communicating prior knowledge between and within members of a small team or group. The visual language includes a set of geometric shapes and rules that guide the construction of the abstract diagrams that are the external representation of the visual language. The underlying cognitive processes are framed within the context of the visual language making unconscious conceptualizations external and visible. The outcome of using the visual language and performing the diagramming technique is the creation of a mental model that can be shared when communicating ideas across cultural and international borders. [For the full proceedings, see ED581791.]

The current paper explores possible solutions to the problem of detecting affective states from facial expressions during text/diagram comprehension, a context devoid of interactive events that can be used to infer affect. These data present an interesting challenge for face-based affect detection because likely locations of affective facial expressions within videos of students' faces are entirely unknown. In the current study, students engaged in a text/diagram comprehension activity after which they self-reported their levels of confusion, frustration, and engagement. Data were chosen from various locations within the videos, and texture-based facial features were extracted to build affect detectors. Varying amounts of data were used as well to determine an appropriate window of data to analyze for each affect detector. Detector performance was measured using Area Under the ROC Curve (AUC), where chance level is 0.5 and perfect classification is 1. Confusion (AUC = 0.637), engagement (AUC = 0.554), and frustration (AUC = 0.609) were detected at above-chance levels. Prospects for improving the method of finding likely positions of affective states are also discussed. [For complete proceedings, see ED560503.]

In this paper, we present an approach to spatial geometry that involved a group of university students, who engaged in visual experiences while discussing about geometrical properties using a dynamic geometry environment. Drawing on aspects related to the difficulty of seeing in 3D, we introduce suitable connections between quadrilaterals and tetrahedra as a way to enhance visual skills in space geometry. In so doing, we show examples of the way learners manage "to see in space" through the affordances offered by the DGE. [For the complete proceedings, see ED597799.]

The aim of the research is to investigate the transformation of the perception process through mathematics education, by an example of scanning the Cartesian coordinate system in order to locate a target point. We compared participants with different competence in mathematics. Historically, motion along axes appeared as a specific "theoretical" action that constituted the Cartesian coordinate system. We detected this specificity as a dominance of vertical and horizontal saccades of eye movements in perception processes of all groups of participants. Experts-novices differences dealt with an ability of experts to use additional essential information and to discard unnecessary data. Furthermore, a lot of evidences of shortening of the perception actions from novices to experts are presented. [For the complete proceedings, see ED597799.]

This study compares Singaporean Grade 6 students' performance and strategy preference on two graphic-rich mathematics tasks, presented via pencil-and-paper and iPad modes. There were statistically significant differences between students' performances on the two tasks, one in favour of the paper mode and the other in favour of the iPad. Students who possessed higher spatial ability were more likely to solve the tasks correctly. The implications of the study are timely given the fact that high-stakes tests are likely to be presented in a digital form in coming years.

These proceedings contain the papers of the International Conference e-Learning 2013, which was organised by the International Association for Development of the Information Society and is part of the Multi Conference on Computer Science and Information Systems (Prague, Czech Republic, July 23-26, 2013). The e-Learning 2013 conference aims to address the main issues of concern within e-Learning. This conference covers both technical as well as the non-technical aspects of e-Learning. The conference accepts submissions in the following seven main areas: Organisational Strategy and Management Issues; Technological Issues; e-Learning Curriculum Development Issues; Instructional Design Issues; e-Learning Delivery Issues; e-Learning Research Methods and Approaches; e-Skills and Information Literacy for Learning. Keynote papers in these proceedings include: (1) Thoughts on the Quality of Learning in MOOCs (Thomas C. Reeves); and (2) Social Networks as the support of the e-Learning (Jan Lojda). Full papers in these proceedings include: (1) Evaluation of Visual Computer Simulator for Computer Architecture Education (Yoshiro Imai, Masatoshi Imai and Yoshio Moritoh); (2) Understanding Children's Museum Learning from Multimedia Instruction (Asmidah Alwi and Elspeth McKay ); (3) How Does the "Digital Generation" Get Help on Their Mathematics Homework? (Carla van de Sande, May Boggess and Catherine Hart-Weber); (4) Productization and Commercialization of IT-Enabled Higher Education in Computer Science: A Systematic Literature Review (Irja Kankaanpää and Hannakaisa Isomäki); (5) Motivating an Action Design Research Approach to Implementing Online Training in an Organizational Context (Christine Rogerson and Elsje Scott ); (6) Social e-Learning in Topolor: A Case Study (Lei Shi, Dana Al Qudah and Alexandra I. Cristea); (7) Training Educators: Plan for Replicating the Experience (Ulanbek Mambetakunov and Marina Ribaudo); (8) Choosing Learning Methods Suitable for Teaching and Learning in Computer Science (Estelle Taylor, Marnus Breed, Ilette Hauman and Armando Homann); (9) Teaching AI Search Algorithms in a Web-Based Educational System (Foteini Grivokostopoulou and Ioannis Hatzilygeroudis ); (10) Digital Histories for the Digital Age: Collaborative Writing in Large Lecture Courses (Leen-Kiat Soh, Nobel Khandaker and William G. Thomas); (11) Promoting Scientific Literacy through the Online Argumentation System (Chun-Yen Tsai); (12) Using a Techno-Skepticism Framework to Evaluate the Perception and Acceptance of a New Online Reading List (Ajmal Sultany and Samantha Halford); (13) SMS-Based Learning in Tertiary Education: Achievement and Attitudinal Outcomes (Yaacov J Katz); (14) e-Portfolios @ Teacher Training: An Evaluation of Technological and Motivational Factors (Alfred Klampfer and Thomas Köhler ); (15) Effects of Facebook Tutoring on Learning English as a Second Language (Chang-hwa Wang and Cheng-ping Chen); (16) An Italian Experience of Social Learning at High School (Michelle Pieri, Davide Diamantini and Germano Paini); (17) Distance Education: Educational Trajectory Control (Andrey Isaev, Alla Kravets, Ludmila Isaeva and Sergey Fomenkov); (18) Leadership for Sustaining Pedagogical Innovations in ICT Implementation: A Case Study of Taiwanese Vocational High School (Yih-Shyuan Chen, Yu-Horng Chen, Shun-Jyh Wu and Fang-Kai Tang); (19) Towards to a Versatile Tele-Education Platform for Computer Science Educators Based on the Greek School Network (Michael Paraskevas, Thomas Zarouchas, Panagiotis Angelopoulos and Isidoros Perikos); (20) Adaptive Feedback Improving Learningful Conversations at Workplace (Matteo Gaeta, Giuseppina Rita Mangione, Sergio Miranda and Francesco Orciuoli); (21) Teachers Little Helper: Multi-Math-Coach (Martin Ebner, Martin Schön, Behnam Taraghi and Michael Steyrer); (22) Youflow Microblog: Encouraging Discussions for Learning (Rafael Krejci and Sean W. M. Siqueira); (23) Interaction Problems Accessing e-Learning Environments in Multi-Touch Mobile Devices: A Case Study in Teleduc (André Constantino da Silva, Fernanda Maria Pereira Freire, Alan Victor Pereira de Arruda and Heloísa Vieira da Rocha); (24) Integrating a Learning Management System with a Student Assignments Digital Repository. A Case Study (Javier Díaz, Alejandra Schiavoni, María Alejandra Osorio, Ana Paola Amadeo and María Emilia Charnelli); (25) On the Recommender System for University Library (Shunkai Fu, Yao Zhang and Seinminn); (26) Developing and Implementing a New Online Bachelor Program: Formal Adoption of Videoconferencing and Social Networking as a Step towards M-Learning (Roland van Oostveen and François Desjardins); (27) Developing a User Oriented Design Methodology for Learning Activities Using Boundary Objects (?lga Fragou and Achilles Kameas); (28) User Acceptance of a Haptic Interface for Learning Anatomy (Soonja Yeom, Derek Choi-Lundberg, Andrew Fluck and Arthur Sale); (29) e-Learning Software for Improving Students Music Performance Using Comparisons (M. Delgado, W. Fajardo and M. Molina-Solana); (30) A Digital Game for International Students Adjustments (Maryam Bisadi, Alton Y.K Chua and Lee Chu Keong); (31) Developing an ICT-Literacy Task-Based Assessment Instrument: The Findings on the Final Testing Phase (Jessnor Elmy Mat-jizat); (32) Peer Tutoring in the CIS Sandbox: Does it Work? (Mark Frydenberg); (33) e-Competent Teacher and Principal as the Foundation of e-Competent School e-Education, the Largest School Informatization Project in Slovenia 2008-2013 (Magdalena Šverc, Andrej Flogie, Maja Vicic Krabonja and Kristjan Percic); (34) Collaborative Tools in Upper Secondary School--Why? (Helle Mathiasen, Hans-Peter Degn, Christian Dalsgaard, Christian W Bech and Claus Gregersen); (35) Adaptation of Educational Text to an Open Interactive Learning System: A Case Study for RETUDIS (M. Samarakou, E.D. Fylladitakis, G. Tsaganou, J. Gelegenis, D. Karolidis, P. Prentakis and A. Papadakis); and (36) Using Podcasts in Distance Education (Herman Koppelman). Short papers in these proceedings include: (1) Big Data & Learning Analytics: A Potential Way to Optimize eLearning Technological Tools (Olga Arranz García and Vidal Alonso Secades); (2) Critical Factors in Mobile eLearning: A Quasi-Systematic Review (Sergio Assis Rodrigues, Rodrigo Pereira dos Santos, Lucas Arnaud and Jano Moreira de Souza); (3) Analysis of Instruction Models in Smart Education (JaeHyeong Park, JeongWon Choi and YoungJun Lee); (4) The History Harvest: An Experiment in Democratizing the Past through Experiential Learning (William G. Thomas and Patrick D. Jones); (5) Challenges of Mongolian e-Learning and An Improvement Method of Implementation (S.Baigaltugs, B. Munkhchimeg and J.Alimaa); (6) Towards a Trust Model in e-Learning: Antecedents of a Student's Trust (Woraluck Wongse-ek, Gary B Wills and Lester Gilbert); (7) Elemental Learning as a Framework for e-Learning (John V. Dempsey and Brenda C. Litchfield); (8) An Interactive Training Game Using 3D Sound for Visually Impaired People (Hsiao Ping Lee, Yen-Hsuan Huang and Tzu-Fang Sheu); (9) e-Learning Practice-Oriented Training in Physics: The Competence Information (Alla G. Kravets, Oxana V. Titova and Olga A. Shabalina); (10) Student Experiences on Interaction in an Online Learning Environment as Part of a Blended Learning Implementation: What is Essential? (Laura Salmi); (11) Usability Assessment of e-Cafe Operational Management Simulation Game (Chiung-sui Chang and Ya-Ping Huang); (12) System for Automatic Generation of Examination Papers in Discrete Mathematics (Mikael Fridenfalk); (13) Direction of Contents Development for Smart Education (YoungSun Park, SangJin An and YoungJun Lee); (14) Online Training in Australia (Joze Kuzic); (15) Using Facebook as a Virtual Classroom in a Public University in Mexico City (Miguel Angel Herrera Batista); (16) Exploring Competency Development with Mobile Devices (Maurice DiGiuseppe, Elita Partosoedarso, Roland Van Oostveen and Francois Desjardins); (17) A Study of the Metacognition Performance in Online Learning (Ya-Ping Huang and Chiung-Sui Chang); (18) Educational Company and e-Learning (František Manlig, Eva Šlaichová, Vera Pelantová, Michala Šimúnová, František Koblasa and Jan Vavruška ); (19) Structural Constructivism as an Epistemology for Professional e-Learning: Implications & Recommendations for the Design of ECPD Pedagogical Models (Gurmit Singh and Maggie McPherson); (20) e-Learning System for Experiments Involving Construction of Practical Electric Circuits (Atsushi Takemura); (21) Component-Based Approach in Learning Management System Development (Larisa Zaitseva, Jekaterina Bule and Sergey Makarov); (22) Learning Portfolio as a Service--A Restful Style (Shueh-Cheng Hu, I-Ching Chen and Yaw-Ling Lin); (23) Context Aware Recommendations in the Course Enrollment Process Based on Curriculum Guidelines (Vangel V. Ajanovski); and (24) A Model of e-Learning Uptake and Continued Use in Higher Education Institutions (Nakarin Pinpathomrat, Lester Gilbert and Gary B Wills). Reflections papers in these proceedings include: (1) The Development of Logical Structures for e-Learning Evaluation (Uranchimeg Tudevdagva, Wolfram Hardt and Jargalmaa Dolgor); (2) Ethics in e-Learning (Alena Bušíková and Zuzana Melicheríková); (3) A Comparative Study of e-Learning System for Smart Education (SangJin An, Eunkyoung Lee and YoungJun Lee); (4) Alternative Assessment Techniques for Blended and Online Courses (Brenda C. Litchfield and John V. Dempsey); (5) Assessing the Structure of a Concept Map (Thanasis Giouvanakis, Haido Samaras, Evangelos Kehris and Asterios Mpakavos); (6) Implementations for Assessing Web 2.0 on Education (Gabriel Valerio and Ricardo Valenzuela); (7) Storytelling: Discourse Analysis for Understanding Collective Perceptions of Medical Education (Yianna Vovides and Sarah Inman); (8) Perception and Practice of Taiwanese EFL Learners' Making Vocabulary Flashcards on Quizlet (Chin-Wen Chien); (9) A Study of Perceptions of Online Education among Professionals (Parviz Ghandforoush); and (10) The Design of the Test Format for Tablet Computers in Blended Learning Environments: A Study of the Test Approach-Avoidance Tendency of University Students (Takeshi Kitazawa). Posters in these proceedings include: (1) Blended Lessons of Teaching Method for Information Studies in Which Students Produce a Learning Guidance Plan (Isao Miyaji); (2) Factors Affecting Teenager Cyber Delinquency (Young Ju Joo, Kyu Yon Lim, Sun Yoo Cho, Bo Kyung Jung and Se Bin Choi); (3) Personalized Virtual Learning Environment from the Detection of Learning Styles (M. L. Martínez Cartas, N. Cruz Pérez, D. Deliche Quesada, and S. Mateo Quero); (4) Distance Online Course for Librarian in Mongolia, Reflection and Learned Lesson (Uranchimeg Tudevdagva and Garamkhand Surendeleg); (5) The Design and Development of a Computerized Attention-Training Game System for School-Aged Children (Tsui-Ying Wang and Ho-Chuan Huang); (6) Discovering Visual Scanning Patterns in a Computerized Cancellation Test (Ho-Chuan Huang and Tsui-Ying Wang); and (7) The Effects of Self-Determination on Learning Outcomes in a Blended Learning (Young Ju Joo, Kyu Yon Lim, Sang Yoon Han, Yoo Kyoung Ham and Aran Kang). Luís Rodrigues is an associate editor of the proceedings. Individual papers contain references. An author index is included.

In this age of proliferating visual communications, there is a permissiveness in subject matter, content, and meaning that is exhilarating, yet overwhelming to interpret in a meaningful or consensual way. By recognizing visual statements, whether a piece of sculpture, an advertisement, a video, or a building, as communication, one can approach their interpretation on different levels and in a number of different ways. The central thesis of this paper is that a visually literate approach to interpreting visual statements must be a flexible, context-relevant, ongoing reinterpretation, and reevaluation. Hence, visual literates have an obligation to explore a variety of perspectives such as art historical, mass communications, perception psychology, semiotics, and hermeneutics. There is a diagram that illustrates the systems for interpretation in communication theory is provided, as well as two lists that outline the various perspectives and categories of an eclectic, inclusive interpretation process. (Contains 35 references.) (DGM)

The Proceedings of PME-XVII has been published in three volumes because of the large number of papers presented at the conference. Volume I contains a brief Plenary Panel report, 4 full-scale Plenary Addresses, the brief reports of 10 Working Groups and 4 Discussion Groups, and a total of 23 Research Reports grouped under 4 themes. Volume II contains 37 Research Reports grouped under 7 themes. Volume III contains 28 Research Reports grouped under 5 themes, 25 Oral Communications, and 19 Poster Presentations. In summary, the 3 volumes contain 88 full-scale Research Reports, 4 full-scale Plenary Addresses, and 59 briefer reports. Conference subject matter can be conveyed through a listing of the 15 themes under which Research Reports were grouped: Advanced Mathematical Thinking; Algebraic Thinking; Assessment and Evaluation; Pupil's Beliefs and Teacher's Beliefs; Computers and Calculators; Early Number Learning; Functions and Graphs; Geometrical and Spatial Thinking; Imagery and Visualization; Language and Mathematics; Epistemology, Metacognition, and Social Construction; Probability, Statistics, and Combinatorics; Problem Solving; Methods of Proof; Rational Numbers and Proportions; Social Factors and Cultural Factors. Each volume contains an author index covering all three volumes. (MKR)

This study investigated the relationship between the Developmental Test of Visual Motor Integration-Revised (VMI-R) and written expression skills of 54 students (grades 2 to 7) with learning disabilities. Data analysis compared cognitive ability; visual motor skills; achievement in reading, math, and written language; teacher rating of written language skills; and background information on each student. Results indicated that the VMI-R appeared to contribute significantly to understanding of written expression skills in this population. (Contains 14 references.) (DB)

This paper presents three experiments examining competence in the domain of proportional reasoning in several age groups (adult, and children in kindergarten, first, third, and fifth grade). In the three experiments, subjects indicated which of two flower boxes had the greater density of flowers. In experiments 1 and 2, the flowers were presented inside the flower boxes. In experiment 3, the flowers were presented as uniform rows of dots outside the flower boxes. In experiments 1 and 2, all subjects performed well, using density rather than number or area to make decisions. In experiment 3, however, only the older children performed well. Younger children based their judgments on the dimensions of number, revealing that when an explicit integration is required to be correct, younger children perform poorly. These results provide initial support for a two-process model for dealing with proportionality. (MM)

A survey of several hundred German students led to two theses on school environment and learning. First, students find school buildings attractive only if they conform to certain features of the human sensory system such as balance. Second, students consider school buildings attractive and inviting only if their architectural message meets such social needs as warmth and openness. Humans perceive structure not only through conscious sight, but through dynamic perceptions of composition or pattern. This spontaneous dynamic apprehension process must take place before one can perceive a structure as "rigid,""dynamic,""living," or "dead." In addition, buildings always activate the human sense of balance, which is important in determining a person's relationship to space. Research shows that to regain their own sense of balance, students use eye movements to compensate for shapes that are displayed obliquely. Oblique structural angles upset the sense of balance and create a hostile architectural geometry. By contrast, balanced structures containing obliques and oblique counterangles are perceived as lively and exhilarating. Students who perceive antisocial messages in architecture may try to ignore, counter, or visually evade the structure. Thus, a school building can be attractive only if it provides various and stimulating structural shapes and colors, liberating and unconstrained configuration, and warmth and softness of colors and shapes. (JPT)

This study investigated associations between infants' prelinguistic communicative behaviors at 9 months and their communication and language performance at 12 and 18 months. The inclusion of both hearing (N=19) and deaf (N=16) infants in the study allowed identification of effects related to the receptive communication modality (vision versus audition) available to the infants. Findings indicated that, for both deaf and hearing infants, characteristics of interactive behaviors at 9 months (including signalling, rhythmic activity, and gaze aversion) are associated with later communicative behaviors. However, the presence or absence of ability to receive auditory communication resulted in similar early interactive behaviors being associated differently with communicative development of deaf and hearing infants. The study concludes that assumptions about "positive" or "negative" characteristics of infants' early interactive behaviors may result in misleading conclusions if infants' hearing status is not considered. Face-to-face and free play situations may be experienced differently and have different meanings for infants whose primary modality for receptive communication is vision instead of audition. (JDD)

Previous literature on children's visual pattern perception has suggested that preschool children may process hierarchical forms in a manner different from that of older children and adults. Data from some studies suggested that children are holistic processors of pattern information, while other studies characterized children as piecemeal processors. In this study, 4-, 5-, 6-, and 8-year-olds and adults were asked to draw four different hierarchical stimuli, two composed of letters and two of geometric forms. In the memory condition, each stimulus was presented for 5 seconds and then removed from view. The subject was then asked to draw it. This procedure continued until all four forms had been drawn. The control condition was identical, except that each model remained in view until the subject was finished drawing it. Results indicated that, contrary to earlier reports in the literature, younger children, like the older children, reproduced the global and local levels of the hierarchical forms with equal facility in both the copy condition and the memory condition. Four figures showing the reproduction task stimuli, the scoring scales, scores of drawing quality in memory and control conditions, and actual drawings of subjects are appended. (Author/GLR)

Different effects of instructional strategies on recall and comprehension of terms frequently used in formal analysis of art were examined. The study looked at a synthesis of three theoretical positions: dual-coding theory, schema theory, and elaboration theory. Two-hundred and fifty sixth-grade students were randomly assigned to three groups: control subjects, graphic subjects, and transformational subjects. Instruments consisted of Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM) and the Art Vocabulary Test (AVT). The program consisted of three phases: (1) a 10-minute study session; (2) an interactive discussion, and (3) a drawing task. The results suggested that imagery strategies help students form and retain associations between verbal and visual information. Graphic organizers may promote more flexible applications of the associations for individuals who have already acquired good problem-solving skills. The concrete associations obtained from transformational imagery strategies improve student recall of specific associations. However, interview data suggested that the approach may constrain the associated meaning. Trends in the data are consistent with elaboration theory and could inform scholars and researchers who wish to analyze effects of visual and verbal associations. (KM)

The advancement of microcomputer technology has reached the point where color monitors and color computer software are fast becoming the norm in our information society. Color is another channel for communication, and can be used for enhancement of both aesthetic characteristics and productivity. The advantage to the use of color for communication is that there is an increased capacity to convey information in the message. The disadvantage is that the information contained in the color channel may not be perceived by approximately eight percent of the population who have impaired color vision. Misperceiving color information may result in not seeing such important messages as headings on a spreadsheet or the distinct colored sections in a pie chart. This paper explains the technological and perceptual problems associated with the use of color computer display systems, and then offers a solution for the effective use of color regardless of the viewer's ability to perceive color. (14 references) (Author/DB)

This volume contains 53 articles grouped under five headings: (1) Research (14 papers on such topics as cognitive style and cognitive strategies, visual literacy training, and the impact of diagrams, type styles, and computer graphics on learning); (2) Theory (nine papers on such topics as the development of visual literacy concepts, cognition and understanding, visual intelligence, instructional design, and hypermedia); (3) Computers and Technology (six papers on such topics as hypermedia, still photography, high definition television, and desktop publishing); (4) Arts (12 papers on such topics as photography, images and meaning, incongruous imagery, visual thinking, and art and computer graphics); and (5) Schools and Curriculum (12 articles on such topics as teaching visual literacy at the elementary, high school, and college levels, illustration of children's books, visual creativity, visual design, and schema construction). Most papers contain references. (KRN)

This document, the first of three volumes, reports on the 15th annual conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education (PME) held in Italy 1991. Plenary addresses and speakers are: "Social Interaction and Mathematical Knowledge" (B. M. Bartolini); "Meaning: Image Schemata and Protocols" (W. Dorfler); "On the Status of Visual Reasoning in Mathematics and Mathematics Education" (T. Dreyfus); "The Activity Theory of Learning and Mathematics Education in the USSR" (T. Gabay). Research reports in this volume include: "Applications of R-Rules as Exhibited in Calculus Problem Solving" (Amit, M.; Movshovitz-Hadar N.); "Effects of Diagrams on the Solution of Problems Concerning the Estimation of Differences" (Antonietti, A.; Angelini, C.); "Le probleme de statut du "millieu" dans un enseignement de la geometric avec support logiciel" (Artigue, M.; Belloc, J.; Kargiotakis, G.); "Procedural and Relational Aspects of Algebraic Thinking" (Arzarello, F.); "Hegemony in the Mathematics Curricula the Effect of Gender and Social Class on the Organisation of Mathematics Teaching for Year 9 Students" (Atweh, B.; Cooper, T.); "Instantaneous Speed: Concept Images at College Students' Level and its Evolution in a Learning Experience" (Azcarate, C.); "Students' Mental Prototypes for Functions and Graphs" (Bakar, M.; Tall, D.); "Illustrations de problemes mathematiques complexes mettant en jeu un changement au une sequence de changements par des enfants du primaire (Bednarz, N.; Janvier, B.); "The Operator Construct of Rational Number: A Refinement of the Concept" (Behr, M.; Harel, G.; Post, T.; Lesh, R.); "Children's Use of Outside-School Knowledge to Solve Mathematics Problems In-School" (Bishop, A. J.; De Abreu, G.); "Influences of an Ethnomathematical Approach on Teacher Attitudes to Mathematics Education" (Bishop, A. J.; Pompeu, G., Jr.); "Gender and the Versatile Learning of Trigonometry Using Computer Software" (Blackett, N.; Tall, D.); "La dimension du travail psychique dans la formation continue des enseignant(e)s de mathematiques" (Blanchard-Laville, C.); "Drawing a Diagram: Observing a Partially-Developed Heuristic Process in College Students" (Bodner, B. L.; Goldin, G. A.); "The Active Comparison of Strategies in Problem-Solving: an Exploratory Study" (Bondesan, M. G.; Ferrari, P. L.); "Teachers' Conceptions of Students' Mathematical Errors and Conceived Treatment of Them" (Boufi, A.; Kafoussi, S.); "Children's Understanding of Fractions as Expressions of Relative Magnitude" (Carraher, D. W.; Dias, Schliemann A.); "Dificultad en problemas de estructura multiplicative de comparacion" (Castro, Martinez E.; Rico, Romero L.; Batanero, Bernabeu C.); "Construction and Interpretation of Algebraic Models" (Chiappini G., Lemut E.); "Analysis of the Behaviour of Mathematics Teachers in Problem Solving Situations with the Computer" (Chiappini, G.; Lemut E., Parenti, L.); "Analysis of the Accompanying Discourse of Mathematics Teachers in the Classroom" (Chiocca, C.; Josse, E.; Robert, A.); "Van Hiele Levels of Learning Geometry" (Clements, D. H.; Battista, M. T.); "Some Thoughts about Individual Learning Group Development, and Social Interaction" (Cobb, P.); "Une analyse des brouillons de calcul d'eleves confrontes a des items de divisions ecrites" (Conne, F.; Brun, J.); "Brian's Number Line Representation of Fractions" (Davis, R. B.; Alston, A.; Maher, C.); and "Pupils' Needs for Conviction and Explanation within the Context of Geometry" (De Villiers, M.). This volume contains the addresses of research report authors. (MKR)

A study determined the effectiveness of computer-aided drafting (CAD) and standard drafting instruction on the ability of students with differing visual-haptic perceptual styles to solve orthographic projection problems. A 2x2x2 factorial design was chosen to compare two levels of perceptual style with two levels of treatment and two levels of prior drafting experience. Activities were administration of the Successive Perception I test to determine visual-haptic style; administration of a questionnaire regarding prior drafting experience; provision of CAD instruction to the experimental group and traditional instruction to the control group; administration of the direct measure of orthographic projection ability; and collection of plate grades. The sample consisted of 188 beginning drafting students at the University of Missouri-Columbia. Three-way univariate analyses of covariance were used to test the hypotheses. The lack of significant differences between student scores on plate grades or the unit exam grades indicated that either instructional method could be used with equal success, visual and nonvisual students benefited equally from drafting instruction, and prior drafting experience did not ensure better skills in solving orthographic projection problems. Findings implied that visual-haptic perceptual style may not affect ability to solve orthographic projection problems. (15 references) (YLB)

A study assessed the practical use of the simplified speech pattern approach to teaching lipreading in a tone language by comparing performance using an acoustic hearing-aid and a Sivo-aid in a tone labelling task. After initial assessment, subjects were given training to enhance perception of lexically contrastive tones, then post-tested. The test used was audio-video recorded test material in Cantonese used to assess speech receptive ability, which includes a tonal component. For each subject, visual stimuli were presented, some accompanied by an auditory signal (either speech tone or larynx tone) through either acoustic hearing aids or a Sivo-aid. One treatment used lipreading alone. Subjects in the experimental group were four profoundly deaf children; all of their deaf classmates served as a control group. Results indicated that the auditory signal contributes to tonal reception more effectively using the Sivo-aid, but some variation still occurred. It is concluded that the simplification approach allows a better match to the user's hearing capabilities, making better use of residual hearing, and allows gradual development of perceptual skills relating to suprasegmentals as well as segmentals. (MSE)

In two experiments, visual and auditory memory were tested for good and for poor readers from the upper elementary grades. Under experimenter-blind conditions, no reading group differences existed for single-mode presentation in recognition frequency or recognition latency. With a multimodal presentation, latencies for poor readers were similar to those for the single-mode presentation. Good readers, however, had significantly faster latencies with multiple input. Generally, results supported dual encoding and self-terminating memory search hypotheses for previously encoded stimuli. Implications of the latency differences between reader groups are discussed with respect to the reading process and reading theory. (Author)

This study investigated the possibility of a functional relation between the auditory and visual systems in the human newborn beyond reflexive organization. Visual activity was monitored in 16 newborns through the use of infrared corneal reflection video tape recording. Infants were observed in total darkness and while monocularly viewing a vertical bar presented either in the left or right part of the visual field. Sound was presented ipsilateral and contralateral to the bar. Results indicate that sound produced looking first toward the source and then away from the source, thereby spatially biasing exploratory visual behavior. The data suggest that audition and vision are related at birth in a manner that is not purely reflexive. (Author/SB)

A survey of research indicates that a high correlation exists between the attending behavior of beginning readers and their ability to learn to read. Level of attention can be associated with ability to ignore unrelated stimuli, interest in the reading material, perceptual problems, and the sex of the reader. It is suggested that sex differences in attending behavior may be a result of the content of reading materials in the primary grades; that is, girls' higher performance is due to their greater interest in what is usually female-oriented subject matter. Teachers should therefore take care to provide material which interests both sexes and should encourage reading tasks which necessitate active attention. They should utilize a multisensory approach when appropriate, teach attending skills prior to formal reading instruction, and become aware of possible distracting influences and perceptual problems. (KS)

This experiment asked whether infants at 5 months perceived an invariant over four types of rigid motion (perspective transformations), and thereby differentiated rigid motion from deformation. Four perspective transformations of a sponge rubber object (rotation around the vertical axis, rotation around the horizontal axis, rotation in the frontal plane, and looming back and forth) were contrasted with a rubbery "squeezing" motion of the same object. Twenty-four infants were habituated to three of the perspective transformations and tested on a pre- and post-test with a fourth perspective transformation and with the deforming motion. The dependent variable was looking time. Backward habituation curves showed a rise in looking time when the post-test was introduced after habituation, but a greater rise for the deformation than for the rigid transformation. Analysis of variance confirmed that the type of motion (rigid or deforming) was significant in determining degree of habituation. The inference was made that the infants perceived the invariant property of rigidity in all four perspective transformations and thus differentiated them from deformation. (Author/MS)

Two experiments evaluated the effects of mnemonic training upon 5- and 10-year-old children's learning and retention of patterns at varying intervals. Subjects were 172 middle class children evenly distributed across the two age groups. Experiment I investigated the effects of individual strategies (perceptual exploration, organization of distinctive features, or verbal cues) and reinforcement on retention by children of both age levels after a 3-minute interval. Experiment II investigated the effects of a constant sequence of all three strategies (perceptual exploration, organization of distinctive features, and verbal cues, in that order) and reinforcement on retention after 3-minute, 1-week, and 1-month intervals. Item recognition and reaction times were recorded for all recognition tests. The results indicated that training in both individual strategies and a sequence of strategies facilitated 5- and 10-year-old children's retention of patterns at all intervals. Reinforcement at the time of training was found to be effective in the retention of patterns. Item recognition diminished with lengthening intervals, but decreases were smaller for trained groups. The 10-year-old children had shorter reaction times than did 5-year-old children. Implications for classroom learning are noted briefly. (Author/MS)

Information is presented on the validity, reliability, and normative data of the Ashlock Tests of Visual Perception-Revised, a screening test for perceptual difficulties in preschoolers. Discussed are implications for using the test for screening, diagnosis, and educational planning. (CL)

Described is the Kirshner Saroj Visual Perception Speed Test (KSVPST), a measure of perceptual speed using pictures to identify children whose reading difficulties are due to visual processing deficiencies. It is explained that 323 children 6-13 years old were given the Keystone Visual Skills Test, the KSVPST, and reading readiness tests. Data are said to indicate that perceptual speed is significantly related to reading ability. The author suggests that visual training to increase perceptual speed should be considered as part of a total program for children with reading problems. Among seven appendixes is information on the validity and reliability of the KSVPST. (CL)

The effects of slide photos on ideational fluency in 240 children in grades IV, VII and IX were studied. Children listed uses of tires and knives and similarities between potatoes and carrots, and cats and mice. It was reasoned that stimula which attract attention too closely to physical characteristics of objects directly under consideration should impede productivity of answers. The results strongly substantiated this prediction for grade IX but not for grades IV and VII. Presenting slides of "remote" objects (those not directly under consideration) was suggested as a more creative use of media for older children. (Author)

After consideration of difficulties and shortcomings in the field of research in reading retardation, the evidence about specific factors contributing to reading achievement is reviewed. Factors considered include intelligence and patterns of scores on intelligence subscales, processing of verbal and auditory stimuli, and personality characteristics. (AA)

This study dealt with the identification of potential learning problems and the modification of the readiness program at the kindergarten level. Only the pre- and post-tests were administered to the control group. Experimental group A was tested, learning profiles were developed for each child and a team of specialists evaluated the profiles with the teacher. Experimental group B was tested, a learning profile on each child was written and a team of specialists worked with the children twice a week. All groups were taught using the traditional kindergarten program. A (t) test of the difference between means of pre- and post-tests was found significant for all three groups. A degree of difference was noted favoring the experimental groups. An analysis of variance between the three groups indicated a significant difference between both experimental groups and the control group. However, no significant difference was noted between the two experimental groups. The information gathered from the test results provided the teachers with data which enabled them to make meaningful and judicious decisions concerning the children's educational future. Early screening and identification can allow the kindergarten teacher to design a meaningful program and remediate the child's learning problems within the classroom setting. (Author/CS)

The scores of 79 second-grade pupils on the Ravens Colored Progressive Matrices and the Bender Gestalt were factor-analyzed using six different factor-analytic procedures. Sex, age, and vocabulary test scores were included in the analysis as marker variables. The original factor solutions were subjected to oblique transformation and the transformed solutions were compared. Ten factors were found to be robust across factoring methods and were interpreted. Four perceptual factors were defined by Ravens items; three motor factors were defined by Bender items, and three perceptual-motor factors were defined by a combination of Bender and Ravens items. (Author)

These two reports discuss remedial classes at the community college level. The first describes a series of tests that had been administered indicating the students had both perceptual and visual problems which interfered with their learning: the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, the Purdue Perceptual Motor Survey, and the Frostig Visual Perception Test. The second paper relates the successes and problems of teaching composition to remedial students through the use of diagrams, advertisements, and cartoons. (HOD)

Several working assumptions regarding black reading behavior and alternative contexts for black reading research are presented in this paper along with an attempt to seek the fundamental bases of perception, that is, reading knowledge in the folk wisdom of people. The paper also discusses the influence of cultural and environmental factors on the process of socialization and education, and creates a bridge between reading and speech communication theorists. The paper concludes that the reading program which understands the different perspectives of black culture will be able to apply theories and methods of aural or visual environments, or a combination of those environments so that the reading student is able to utilize the wisdom of his environment. (SW)

This paper explores the role of vision in reading and studying. "How Vision Occurs" discusses the functions of rods, cones, the cerebral cortex, and the receptor senses. "The Optometrist and the Educator" views the role of the optometrist in relation to student learning. "Eye Anatomy Terms" defines the ciliary muscle, optic disc and nerve, macula and fovea, and external eye muscles. "Physiology of Vision While Studying" presents an account of the physiological phenomenon that occurs when a student studies. "The Under-Achiever" emphasizes that a student-oriented type of clinical optometric vision examination be given routinely to every underachiever once a year. "Observable Clues to Classroom Problems: A Check List" details a list of observable systems indicative of visual problems such as the appearance of the eyes, complaints during seat work, eye-hand coordination, visual form perception, and refractive status. (WR)

The real impact of cinema consists in its ability to translate symbols, the mind's form of language, into dynamic moving images. Man's visual orientation produces both his positive reaction to motion--a key element in cinema--and his perceptions of coded, visual information--symbols. The complex relationship between symbols and rhythmic motion which can be effected in cinema are apparent in "Horseopera," a collage film using footage from old western films. This collage combines the two separate areas of imprinted information disseminated among humanity, the symbol information, and the rhythmic sense which are inherent within mankind. (JM)

In teaching students how to write, the utilitarian aspect does not need to be ignored, but--more important--the imaginative, expressive aspect should be emphasized. Since all writing depends on the full resources of the imagination, students need to be taught how to recreate or vivify people, objects, scenes, and feelings. A process which helps students learn to do this, TOTCOM, involves thinking, observing, and composing. Associative thinking provides students with ideas on which to focus in their writing. Another aid for students is the close observation of all their sensory perceptions, while a third is training in the importance of detail--close scrutiny of one small portion of very common things. After thinking, observing, and training, students may proceed to composing, beginning with simple basic structures and continuing on to longer pieces. This training and composing may then be used in aesthetic writings, such as limericks, lyrics, ballads, or fold songs. (JM)

Vision is a complex process involving three phases: physical (acuity), physiological (integrative), and psychological (perceptual). Although these phases cannot be considered discrete, they provide the basis for the visual screening procedure used by the Reading Services of Colorado State University and described in this document. Ten tests are administered and analyze far point and near point visual acuity, binocular vision and fusion, ocular motility, muscle balance, depth perception, visual perception, visual memory, and eye hand coordination. The procedure can be used by paraprofessionals with a minimal amount of training and is relatively inexpensive, the materials costing less than 70 dollars. The examiner's record is included in this document. (TO)

Two experiments were conducted with children to determine the units of word perception used in recognizing isolated words. In the first experiment, kindergarten children practiced visually discriminating whole words (big, pig, dig), single letters (b, p, d), or geometric forms (triangle, circle, square) before learning to read three words (big, dig, pig). The children having whole word discrimination read the words more accurately than those under other conditions. The purpose of the second experiment was to determine if spelling patterns also operate in recognizing isolated words. The experiment involved a same-different reaction-time design in which second graders decided if a word semantically matched a picture. The words were typed with spaces that either preserved possible spelling patterns (bl ast) or were inconsistent with proposed units (b last). Reaction time to the "bl ast" condition was approximately 300 milliseconds faster than to the "b last" stimuli. No differences in reaction time occurred between the control (blast) and "bl ast" conditions. Both experiments showed that units larger than single letters seem to be used by children in word recognition. (Author)