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Food waste (FW), generated from the point of production to the dinner table, represents approximately one third of all the food produced worldwide. It is estimated that more than 95% of household food waste (HFW) goes to landfill and is the major contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from such sites, with other environmental impacts such as pollution of groundwater. There are also significant costs involved with the management of FW worldwide. These issues are compounded by increasing urban populations and there is an urgent need to better address the management and disposal/treatment of FW generally - and HFW in particular. In order to achieve this, more research is urgently needed to obtain specific information on the details of HFW management and on the development of appropriate technologies that are consistent with a micro circular economic (MCE) approach. To this end, an extensive review of HFW management and technology worldwide has been conducted. Together with the above information, in collaboration with three local Councils, research has been undertaken with respect to the Melbourne metropolitan area specifically that involves the design and implementation of a strategy to survey residents across three different well-defined dwelling types, in order to obtain detailed information on their household management and disposal of domestic food waste. Thus, an extensive survey has been designed and conducted that separately targets residents of detached houses, semi-detached/low-rise and high-rise dwellings. This survey has revealed differences in HFW management, attitudes and practices, that that depend on dwelling type - and that also provide important general information and data that has informed the subsequent design, construction and testing of a miniaturized anaerobic-digestion (AD) pilot-plant. This information is of both a qualitative and quantitative nature. For example, it is important to know both the nature and the quantity of the food waste generated as well as residents’ attitudes towards disposal and treatment. The designed and constructed pilot plant is meant to serve as a prototype for the on-site treatment of HFW that will produce biogas for domestic consumption. An ultimate goal here is to utilize HFW to supplement a household’s gas supply and at the same time remove the necessity of sending HFW to landfill. Thus the pilot-plant experimental program has collected and analysed replicate temporal data on the effect on biogas (CH4) production of parameters such as household food waste composition and quantity (as informed by the survey) and texture, the nature of the inoculate, operating conditions such as pH and temperature, oxygen infiltration and fatty acid production - as well as design aspects such as the footprint, the number of tanks and the required control equipment. In terms of biogas yield, a multiple tank set-up has been found to be superior to a single tank set-up and an important aspect has been found to be an appropriate mixing of food waste substrate between AD tanks that results in an increased biogas yield. In summary, the combination of an extensive targeted survey of HFW management in the Melbourne metropolitan area, coupled with the design and trialling of a potential household pilot plant for the on-site generation of biogas, has yielded valuable information that will eventually result in a commercially viable product.

The advancement of sensing technology has successfully reduced the physical size of a sensor node and stimulated the application of swarm sensing (millimetre scale sensors). Such a system has been envisioned to provide novel applications. For example, CSIRO has commenced the application of swarm sensing technology to track insect that aims to understand how the environmental situation influences bee behaviour. While the micro-sensor is still under development, it is crucial to have a baseline data set for initial data analysis purposes so that reasoning with the rich data is possible once the hardware has been developed and deployed. This work will propose a field simulation to address this issue. A hybrid environmental sensor network will be deployed, for the purpose of making highly dense observations, that consists of: (i) fixed sensor nodes, acting as weather stations, that collect data in a regularly-spaced time interval; and (ii) mobile nodes that sense the environmental parameters while insects move within the region with extremely high frequency – i.e. seconds. The proposed spatio-temporal interpolation algorithm in this dissertation (i.e. for environmental modelling) has achieved a computational efficiency factor from highly-dense sample data with an acceptable statistical error. The method also reconstructs the environmental situation in reality – e.g., produce a smooth surface in space and over the time. Combination of a successfully developed field simulation and the interpolation algorithm has opened up a wide range of applications. For instance, researchers could infer bee behavioural dynamics based on the environmental changes that they are experiencing. Such activities could assist entomologists to deepen their understanding of bee behaviour, with a view to advance our knowledge of the decline in bee populations worldwide.

As habitat loss, predators (human and non-human) and disease epidemics threaten species worldwide, protected sanctuaries have become vital to species conservation. Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park (HiP) in South Africa is at the centre of one of the world’s greatest conservation success stories. The formal proclamation of HiP in 1895 prevented the extinction of the south-central black rhino (Diceros bicornis minor) population. In recent times HiP has been a strategic source population for the D. b. minor range expansion program, facilitating an 18-fold population increase across southern Africa. However, HiP’s own black rhino population appears to be in decline. Evidence for decline is most often attributed to overpopulation and poor habitat quality that is driving apparently significant increases in the average home range sizes, poor growth rates (i.e., low calf recruitment) and poor body condition of black rhino. Other factors such as non-human calf predation and parasitism have also been raised as potential causes of decline but remain untested. HiP does have some of the highest densities of lion (Panthera leo) and spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta). HiP’s black rhino population also suffers from remarkably severe chronic haemorrhaging lesions caused by a filarial parasite (Stephanofilaria dinniki). Empirical evidence if or indeed why the HiP black rhino population might be in decline is lacking. Investigating this population’s true status and any potential causes of an apparent decline is urgently needed. This thesis therefore aimed to test three hypotheses for poor performance that included: (1) investigations of the average black rhino home range size, (2) confirmation of black rhino calf predation and (3) the relationship between filarial lesions and black rhino body condition. I inserted horn-implant VHF radio transmitters into 14 adult (i.e., >5 years) female black rhino in HiP and regularly monitored them on-foot over a three-year period. I found that average home range estimates (9.77 km2) were not significantly dissimilar to estimates using a similar technique obtained forty years prior (i.e., 7.5 km²). I also established the first confirmed link between predation attempts and tail amputation during a lion attack on a black rhino calf. Black rhino body condition, while significantly inversely and temporally correlated to lesion severity, did not appear to be driven by lesion severity itself and highlights the need for further research. An additional research focus for my thesis developed while in the field. I regularly witnessed red-billed oxpeckers (Buphagus erythrorynchus) feeding at black rhino filarial lesions while also alarm calling to alert them to my presence. Studies have found it difficult to empirically show how oxpecker-host interactions have net positive benefits that make it a mutualism. Thus, two chapters were designed to determine if red-billed oxpeckers were predominately mutualistic or parasitic when visiting black rhino. Determining this depended on whether I could identify net positive benefits or net costs to black rhino. Oxpeckers provide rhino with two possible benefits i.e., benefit 1 is cleaning ectoparasites and benefit 2 is increasing vigilance, and one cost i.e., lesion parasitism. More than 50 hours of behavioural observations established that oxpeckers favoured haemorrhaging filarial lesions over sites of tick attachment on black rhino. Moreover, black rhino appeared to be completely tolerant of oxpeckers that fed at lesions. To test whether oxpeckers increased rhino’s anti-predator vigilance, I conducted 84 human approach trials towards black rhino both with and without oxpeckers present. Results showed that rhino were immediately responsive to oxpecker alarm calls and benefitted from more than a two-fold increase in human detection rate and detection distance. Rhino predominately orientated to face towards their sensory blind spot (i.e., downwind) after an oxpecker alarm call. The traditional name (Askari wa kifaru) of the red-billed oxpecker, which translates as the rhino’s guard, appears to be validated. However, future research will need to confirm whether black rhino’s tolerance of parasitic oxpeckers is directly related to vigilance benefits. In summary, black rhino managers in HiP can be confident that the average home range sizes have not increased significantly. Further, predation of calves might be a greater problem than previously realised and requires further investigation. Monitoring changes in the filarial lesion severity of black rhino might be a useful tool for detecting impending changes in a rhino’s condition. Finally, black rhino are clearly eavesdropping and benefitting from oxpecker alarm calls – a co-evolution that has implications for conserving oxpecker populations as well.

Trace metals are present in all aquatic systems, originating both from natural and anthropogenic sources. With concerns over the environmental impacts of metals, particularly in semi-enclosed aquatic systems such as the Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, Australia, it is important to be able to monitor the degree of pollutant exposure to local organisms. Little Penguins (Eudyptula minor) nesting at St Kilda, only 3 km from the centre of the 3.3 million people metropolis of Melbourne, are a potentially useful bioindicator species for toxicant exposure within Port Phillip Bay because they are resident and feed exclusively within the bay all year around. This study investigated metal and metalloid concentrations in Little Penguins at St Kilda and two other locations with different levels of anthropogenic impact: the penguin parade at Phillip Island and the remote off-shore Notch Island.

The development and use of any specific model depend on the availability of data and the hydrological settings of a country. Because of data limitations (especially water quality and land management data), the water quality models developed for Australian catchments are lumped/semi-distributed conceptual models. Even within these modelling frameworks, water quality component is empirical or generation rates-based. In this context, developing an effective water quality management plan in the data-poor conditions of Australia still remains as a major challenge for water catchment managers, despite huge investment on river health improvement programs. Physics-based distributed water quality models such as SWAT are most suitable for agricultural non-point source pollution studies. However, because of high data requirement and processing, the applications of these models are limited in many datapoor catchments. In this study, relevant input data sources and analysis techniques were addressed especially for sparsely available water quality data to assemble, and to rigorously calibrate and validate the SWAT based Middle Yarra Water Quality Model (MYWQM) for the case study area - Middle Yarra Catchment (MYC) of Victoria, Australia. The regression based model LOADEST was used for estimating sediment, and nutrient observed loads from monthly water quality grab sample data. The MYWQM was then used to develop a water quality management plan for agricultural non-point source pollution in the MYC. In general, the MYWQM was found capable of predicting streamflow, sediment and nutrient loads in the MYC. The model was also found effective for simulating individual and integrated effects of several Best Management Practices (BMPs) in the MYC. Moreover, the model showed that the in-stream processes if not considered can result in incorrect estimates when simulating BMPs in the model. Overall, the performance of the MYWQM on evaluating the BMPs in the MYC demonstrated that data-intensive physics-based models can be applied in the data-poor conditions of Australia.

Flood is known as the most common natural destructive phenomenon, which can cause severe physical, social and economic damages and losses in both rural and urban regions. Flood vulnerability assessment is essential to identify high risk areas and develop cost-effective flood mitigation and/or adaptation strategies, particularly for urban areas. In the recent past, vulnerability of floods has been assessed using vulnerability indicators consisting of components from various elements of flood damages, especially hydrological, social and economic components. This study presents a model based on a fuzzy rule-based system to assess the flood vulnerability of suburbs under the jurisdiction of Moreland City (MC) area in Melbourne, Australia to identify the most and the least vulnerable suburbs. The area is densely populated and consists of major waterways and creeks that increase the flood vulnerability and thus endangering the safety of people and property. Findings of the study showed that 51.6 % of the area in MC (26.21 km2 in total) falls under very low and low flood vulnerability zones. The suburbs that fall under these 2 classes include Brunswick, Pascoe Vale and Coburg. These are the areas which have the least population density and/or have higher range of social and economic resilience (based on susceptibility indicators such as presence of broadband connection, number of low income and high income households, unemployed and low educated households). The very highly populated areas are classified into high and very high vulnerability classes, which have 4.6% and 0.3% of the total area, respectively. The suburbs that fall under these 2 vulnerable classes include Brunswick West, Gowanbrae, and Pascoe Vale South. For these parts of the study area that are vulnerable to floods, this study recommends to the relevant authorities that some range of steps need to be taken to increase the social and economic resilience in order to enhance the system’s ability to cope with and recover from the negative impacts of floods.

Urban water systems in many developed cities are mostly stressed due to increased demand from population growth and an extended period of drought. The pressure on these systems has led to a number of adaptations such as the adoption of Water Demand Management and Alternative Water Sources. These adaptations are called Water Management Practices (WMP), which include Water Demand Management, Rainwater Harvesting, Greywater Recycling, Sewer Mining, and so on. These WMP lead to an increased uptake of residential rainwater, greywater or mixed wastewater for indoor and outdoor use and thus lead to water savings due to reduced imported water to study area. Besides the well-known benefits of water saving from adoption of WMP, many studies have found that the implementation of WMP reduces wastewater flow, hence causing sewer problems such as blockages, odour and corrosion. While the impact of WMP on sewer blockages has been investigated, the effects on sewer odour and corrosion are still largely unknown. Therefore, using WMP scenario analysis, this study will investigate the impact of WMP on odour and corrosion problems in sewer networks. Some scenarios developed in this study are 1) Base case, 2) Water Demand Management, 3) Greywater reuse/recycling, 4) Rainwater Harvesting, 5) Sewer Mining and 6) Combined Water Demand Management and Alternative Water Sources called as Sustainable Practice. A residential area was selected since the adoption of WMP is mostly conducted in households. A model was developed to simulate urban wastewater systems associated with sewerage pipe networks. The results show that Rainwater Harvesting scenario of RH-B is a comparatively more effective scenario than other WMP in reducing potable water demand and causing less impact on sewer odour and corrosion. RH-B reduced the total imported water to study area by 38% and increased the hydrogen sulphide concentration in sewer pipe by 6%. For the worst impact, there were two scenarios that were classified as worst scenarios, they are scenario of Greywater Recycling of GR-BL and Sustainable Practice of WDM-GR. GR-BL only reduced the imported water by 15% while increased hydrogen sulphide concentration by 40%. On the other hand WDM-GR reduced the total imported water by 46%, while increased hydrogen sulphide concentration by 62%. Scaling up the number of households adopted WMP also increased the risk of sewer odour and corrosion.

Effective conservation and management are paramount to long-term recovery of endangered species. Achieving recovery relies on knowledge of their behaviour and habitats. Neophoca cinerea (Australian sea lion) is an endangered species endemic to Australia. This study focused on three key questions aimed at improving its management near Perth (Western Australia): testing a sea lion identification tool, describing haul-out patterns, and identifying human disturbance sources. N. cinerea whisker spot patterns as a tool for individual identification were tested using Chamfer distance-transform. Patterns contained sufficient information to reliably (99%) identify individuals in populations of 50, matching 90% correctly when testing known captive animals photographed at 90°. Off-angle photographs resulted in 48% correct matches. Resighting in the wild proved unfeasible in this study. However, resights of four scarred N. cinerea at Carnac and Seal Islands (the main study sites) confirmed returns and visitations to both islands. To describe haul-out patterns, generalized additive models were applied to hourly counts between 0800h- 1600h. N. cinerea numbers followed 17-18 month cycles, inversely aligned with the breeding cycle. During non-breeding seasons, hauled-out numbers increased throughout the day, and were associated with air temperature and tide. Research investigating human disturbance indicated that all human activity types elicited responses, which varied between islands depending upon stimulus types (vessel types, people), ranges to stimuli, and activities at each islands. People at close range elicited most elevated responses, including aggression and retreating. This occurred mainly at Carnac Island since direct beach access is allowed. Significant rates of lower-level disturbances were also elicited by vessels within close proximity, including paddlers and those undertaking noisy activities. Resulting recommendations include further restriction and enforcement in approach distances allowed. Also, ongoing monitoring of abundance and behaviour is required for long-term trend estimation. Because of high variability in haul-out behaviour, surveys undertaken at comparable times are recommended.

Hybridisation between closely-related species is an ongoing threat to many species that can be exacerbated by anthropogenic practices. The Pacific Black Duck (Anas superciliosa) is a dabbling duck native to the southwest Pacific that is currently under threat of hybridisation with introduced Mallard (A. platyrhynchos). Mallard are known to hybridise with and threaten many other dabbling duck species throughout the world. To evaluate the threat posed by hybridisation with introduced domestic Mallards to the Australian subspecies of the Pacific Black Duck (A. s. rogersi), a set of nine microsatellite markers were selected to genetically differentiate these species and detect hybrids. The use of these microsatellite markers on putative Pacific Black Ducks found that the overall frequency of hybridisation in Australia is currently low (1.5%) and also revealed that the frequency of hybridisation tended to be higher in urban compared to rural Victoria. Behavioural observations suggested that while Mallards are dominant over Pacific Black Ducks, the latter have not been excluded from parks inhabited by Mallards. In contrast to mainland Australia, most birds on Lord Howe Island appear to be Mallards of New Zealand stock descent. It’s unclear whether hybrids resident were bred locally or whether they emigrated from New Zealand. The lack of Pacific Black Duck phenotypes on Lord Howe Island suggests that this species has been outcompeted by Mallards. In addition to hybridisation with Mallards, anecdotal reports have suggested that Pacific Black Ducks are also hybridising with Chestnut Teals (A. castanea). Based on microsatellite analysis, Chestnut Teal - Pacific Black Duck hybrids were detected, albeit at a low frequency (0.5%), among a sample of putative Pacific Black Ducks sampled throughout Australia Overall, Mallard – Pacific Black Duck hybridisation does not currently seem to be widespread. However, the precautionary principle would advise eradication methods to be put into place to prevent the spread of the Mallard genome throughout Australia’s Pacific Black Duck population to protect the genetic integrity of the Australian subspecies.

Streamflow data are critical for water resource investigations, and their development projects. However, the scarcity of such data, particularly measured streamflow through streamflow gauges, constitutes a serious impediment to the successful implementation of development projects. In the absence of such measured streamflow data, streamflow estimation using measured meteorological data represents a viable alternative. Nevertheless, this alternative is not always possible due to the unavailability of required meteorological data. In the face of such data limitations, many have advocated the use of remote sensing (RS) data to estimate streamflow. The aim of this study was to generate daily streamflow time series data using remote sensing data through catchment process modelling and statistical modelling.

This study aimed to answer three research questions: (1) What, if any, issues are posed by the phenomenon of anthropogenic climate change for major Australian sport stadia (MASS) and the organisations that manage them?; (2) How are the organisations that manage major Australian sport stadia responding to climate change?, and; (3) Why are the organisations that manage major Australian sport stadia responding to climate change in the way they do? Although previous management and sport management research have examined a range of environmental and some climate change issues, there has not been a study of the implications of climate change for major sport stadia – or the organisations that manage them – in Australia, or overseas. Although some management studies have identified climate change specifically as an important problem, little attention has been paid to its physical impacts on sport, and none have considered potential impacts on major sport stadia, or the regulatory and commercial impacts on the organisations that manage them. Equally, few previous studies have examined how sport organisations interpret climate change, contribute to it by way of the direct or indirect generation of greenhouse gas emissions, or respond to its various impacts.

Waste is now electronic, and the landscape of electronic waste management is changing radically. Besides a rapidly growing world population, globalisation is driving the demand for electronic products. Electronic products have a diverse and complex composition. Elements like iron and aluminium and materials like plastics and glasses constitute the bulk of the e-waste, and they contain almost 80% of Waste Electronic and Electric Equipment -WEEE- by weight. The rest contains valuable components and toxic materials. Toxic materials like lead, arsenic, cadmium, selenium, hexavalent chromium, and flame retardants badly affect people and the environment. The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimated that 215 tons of computer waste contain 2 tons of arsenic, 3 tons of mercury, and 10 tons of lead on average. The electronic revolution, as it turns out, is plagued with waste, and disposing of e-waste is a looming threat in Saudi Arabia, with informal recycling activities growing very fast. Although the reusing and recycling of e-waste have environmentally positive impacts in general, citizens are often uncertain of which obsolete management option is preferred. This research explores how the Saudi people can accept a new concept of treating old electronic equipment. The objective was to examine the attitudes and perspectives of the citizens of Saudi Arabia on e-waste management to develop effective e-waste management practices.

The recent drought in South Eastern Australia and associated water restrictions led to a significant increase in the use of greywater for the watering of lawn and garden areas. There was also an emerging trend for sustainable drought resistant landscaping for which some Australian native plants were suitable. There however was an uncertainty about whether greywater was a useful source of water for plants or whether it could be harmful. This study investigated how two varieties of turf Kikuyu (Pennisetum Clandestinum) and Tall Fescue (Festuca arundinacea), and two varieties of Australian native flowers Scaly Buttons (Leptorhynchos squamatus) and Small Vanilla Lilies (Arthropodium minus) grew when watered with several different types of greywaters sourced from a bathroom shower and a laundry.

Oil contamination of ecosystems and wildlife presents a formidable challenge to environmental remediators, including wildlife rescuers and rehabilitators. Quite apart from the diversity of polluting events, existing clean-up methods and technologies have remained essentially unchanged over the years. For example, the method of choice for the treatment of oiled wildlife is still based on the transportation of affected animals to treatment facilities and the use of surfactants and copius amounts of warm water to remove the contamination. Although such techniques have themselves been developed to a high degree over the years, with a number of notable success stories, such operations are often very labour intensive and, not being portable, cannot be applied to the animals upon first encounter, either at remote locations or in holding bays. This means that victims are often left for long periods of time in contact with toxic and/or corrosive chemicals. In spite of such requirements for improvements in wildlife rehabilitation methods and technologies, there is a paucity of scientific and engineering research into alternatives. This thesis is part of a program that exploits the use of oil ad(b)sorbing magnetic particle technology (MPT) in order to research the best methods and equipment to remove oil from a number of relevant substrates - including feathers, fur and rock surfaces. In this regard, the refinement of portable MPT equipment for the provision of a ‘quick clean’ to contaminated wildlife in the field has been pursued. This includes the development and testing of an optimal magnetic harvesting device, an investigation of the particle characteristics that promote a high initial removal of contaminant and the development, in collaboration with industrial design advisors, of the ‘backpack concept’ for a portable kit. Thus the final iteration of the magnetic harvesting device “the wand” is considered to be perfected and prototype equipment is ready for implementation in the event of an incident. The most appropriate particle size distribution and grade for the most efficient “quick removal” of the most volatile constituents has been established.

The goal of wetland assessment is to identify and quantify the condition of wetlands, taking into account the presences of threats likely to impact the services and functions the wetlands provide. There are a wide variety of methods available for undertaking wetland assessment; most rely on data collection across a broad range of attributes at wetland sites to gauge wetland condition. This thesis examines the practice of wetland assessment in West Gippsland, south-eastern Australia and it investigates the contribution, and potencies, of component biological, chemical, hydrological and physical data inputs, individually and collectively, to the identification of high social, economic and environmental value wetlands in the region. A systematic analysis using statistics and data-mining techniques was undertaken of the inventory data for 163 representative wetlands to discover pertinent relationships between the values of different site characteristics and the classification of high-value wetlands. Binary logistic regression and neural networks were used to build models mimicking the wetland assessment process, and an assessment of their abilities to do so was conducted. The influences of two wetland classification schemes: Corrick and Norman (1980) scheme, and Ecological Vegetation Classes (EVCs), on the naming of high-value wetlands were also investigated.

Urban cities are universally becoming water stressed due to combined pressures of increasing urbanisation, growing populations, and fluctuating climate change regimes. Therefore, water resource managers are globally developing strategies to ensure water security and associated long term sustainable use. Stormwater harvesting represents one of those strategies which reduces pressure on existing urban water resources, and mitigates the detrimental environmental impacts of urban stormwater runoff on receiving water bodies. Selection of suitable urban stormwater harvesting sites and associated project planning are often complex due to spatial, temporal, economic, environmental and social factors, and associated various other variables. Moreover, the planning of stormwater harvesting projects essentially involves the engagement of diverse stakeholders in the decision making, who may have conflicting views on stormwater harvesting sites and approaches.

Pimelea spinescens Rye subspecies spinescens is an endemic subshrub found within temperate grasslands of the Victorian volcanic plains. It is listed as critically endangered under the Federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). Efforts to bolster populations using horticultural techniques have been largely unsuccessful. For long-term survival it is necessary to successfully germinate seed and employ methods which encourage wild populations to reproduce in situ. The aim of this research was to identify which factors of the biology, ecology and management of P. spinescens populations, significantly affect the species’ in situ recruitment potential.

Pinniped (seal, sea lion and walrus) tourism is an expanding industry, popularized due to the playful and interactive nature of seals. The industry can have positive outcomes for pinnipeds, through education and the promotion of conservation issues, or negative outcomes, such as causing the animals to abandon sites. The impact of tourism on pinnipeds needs to be minimal for the industry to be considered sustainable. Within New Zealand, pinniped tourism principally targets the New Zealand fur seal (Arctophoca australis forsteri), a recovering species which is increasing in number around New Zealand’s coast as it recolonizes parts of its former range. One of these regions is the Bay of Plenty, in New Zealand’s North Island, where tour operators take customers to view and swim with the seals. This study investigated human-seal interactions during both seal viewing and seal-swim activities, primarily in the Whakatane region of the Bay of Plenty. The major aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of tourism on the seals and to assess and make recommendations for the sustainability of the industry. It also aimed to determine whether a range of variables influenced seal response during tourism activities, including: location, colony size, sex/age classes, time of day, duration of stay, distance, month and stage in the breeding season. Seals-swims were usually observed from on board a licenced marine mammal tour vessel (n = 16 seal-swims), and controlled approaches were conducted from on board an independent research vessel (n = 68 surveys). Video footage of seals in the absence of vessels was taken from a land vantage point to collect control seal behavioural data (n = 15 surveys).

This creative writing thesis begins with the premise that climate change poses critical outcomes for the Australian continent, and asks what the consequences of this are as the precariousness of Australia’s future in relation to climate change continues to gather pace. Comprising a novel (70%) and exegesis (30%), the thesis as a whole seeks to explore the connections between climate change, land and culture in Australia, and to investigate settler Australian understandings regarding ‘place’, ‘belonging’ and ‘home’ in relation to both settlement and unsettledness in contemporary times.

The exotic invasive Chilean needle grass Nassella. neesiana (Trin. & Rupr.) Barkworth has been recognised as a major threat to biodiversity in the endangered natural grasslands of south-eastern Australia. Research was undertaken in Canberra and Melbourne grasslands to examine mechanisms by which N. neesiana invades native grasslands, the impacts of invasion on vascular plant and invertebrate biodiversity and mechanisms of impact. Time series analysis of historical aerial photographs demonstrated that invasion was absent or very slow when infestations abutted healthy grassland, but grasslands in poor condition experienced linear infestation expansion rates >5 m per year. A field experiment demonstrated that major disturbance (death of the native grasses) was required for N. neesiana recruitment from panicle seeds and that intact grassland was not invaded, even with high propagule pressure. Gaps of c. 1 m (as opposed to 10-30 cm) were required for establishment. Pin transect sampling demonstrated that increased senescence of Themeda triandra swards correlated with greater invasion. Nassella neesiana was found to deplete soil water in spring compared to T. triandra, a likely mechanism of biodiversity impact. Areas occupied by N. neesiana in three disparate grasslands were found to have significantly reduced native vascular plant diversity (species m-2). Diversity decreased with increasing size of the N. neesiana patch. Forbs were the most affected group but one or more dominant grasses were absent at the smallest patch sizes. Exotic plant diversity was similar inside and outside patches. Analysis of sweep net samples determined that invertebrate populations and species richness were significantly reduced in N. neesiana grassland, although numerous native insect species consume the plant. Much of the loss of diversity in invaded areas probably precedes invasion and is caused by anthropogenic disturbances including T. triandra senescence dieback, mowing and major soil disturbance. Native grasslands in good condition are resistant to invasion.

Sustainability of water resources is essential to ensure that available water can be used by both present and future generations. To ensure sustainability, a comprehensive knowledge of the current conditions of water resources is necessary. Once this information is obtained, relevant programs can be designed to improve the quality and use of water resources. A water sustainability index is a useful tool to obtain information on the current conditions of water resources. It can also be used to identify all factors contributing to these conditions, to assist decision makers prioritising water issues, to design programs related to water resource improvement, and to communicate the current status of existing water resources to the general community. In the recent past, several indices related to water resource sustainability have been developed. Even though there have been some successful experiences with the implementation of existing sustainability indices, they are not fully applicable in other regions or countries, since most of these indices have been developed for specific regions or countries. This study aims at developing a new water sustainability index for West Java, Indonesia, which can be used as a tool to improve the management of water resources in West Java. The development of the West Java Water Sustainability Index (WJWSI) involved the design of the conceptual framework, the application of Delphi technique to refine and finalise the conceptual framework, the application of WJWSI in three West Java catchments, and finally the robustness analysis of WJWSI through uncertainty and sensitivity analysis.

Water resource management is becoming more complex and relies heavily on computer software processing to help data queries for common and rare patterns for analyzing critical water events. For example, it is vital for decision makers to know if certain types of water quality problems are isolated (e.g. rare) or ubiquitous (e.g. common) and whether the conditions are changing spatially or temporally for a proper management plan. This thesis aims to automatically detect spatiotemporal common and rare patterns by significantly addressing the uncertainty and heterogeneity in water quality data, in order to enhance the accuracy and efficiency of common and rare pattern mining models underpinning many of the water resource management strategies and planning decisions. Therefore, we propose two novel semantics-oriented mining methods: the Correcting Imprecise Readings and Compressing Excrescent Points (CIRCE) method and the Exceptional Object Analysis for Finding Rare Environmental Events (EOAFREE) method. The CIRCE method resolves uncertainty problems in retrieving common patterns based on spatiotemporal semantic points, such as inflexions. The EOAFREE method tackles the heterogeneity problem by summarizing raw water data into a water quality index, that is, water semantics, in discovering rare patterns. We demonstrate the efficiency and effectiveness of the two methods by using simulation and real world datasets, and then implement them in a Semantics-Oriented Mining Application for Detecting Water Quality Events (SOMAwater) prototype system, which is used to query spatiotemporal common and rare patterns for a real world water quality dataset of 93 sites in 10 river basins in Victoria, Australia from 1975 to 2010.

Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration ([CO2]) is the main contributing factor to anthropogenically derived global climate change. The impact of climate change upon terrestrial ecosystems is still uncertain. If information can be obtained on how past fluctuations in [CO2] and temperature has affected terrestrial communities this knowledge can increase our understanding as to how future climate change may impact upon modern-day ecosystems. Foliar stomatal frequency analysis is a proxy-CO2 measure that may provide estimates of atmospheric [CO2] from subfossil or fossil leaf material. Currently, the majority of the research in this field has been conducted on deciduous Northern Hemisphere species including extant and fossil material. Southern Hemisphere fossil species are currently under-represented in the fossil proxy-CO2 database. The rate of climate change in the Southern Hemisphere is less than that experienced in the Northern Hemisphere, so using Northern Hemisphere derived training sets to provide Southern Hemisphere CO2 estimates may introduce confounding errors. Therefore, the use of Southern Hemisphere training sets on Southern Hemisphere fossil material will provide more accurate atmospheric CO2 estimations. This thesis will contribute to the field of knowledge by determining the applicability of three Southern Hemisphere evergreen tree species to be used as potential proxy-CO2 indicator species.

In this study an assessment of the factors that influence the degree to which a city or community would undertake wastewater treatment and use the output for various purposes is investigated. In assessing these issues two contrasting case studies of wastewater treatment and recycling are studied namely Hyderabad, India (representing a developing country context) and Melbourne, Australia (representing a developed country context). An improved understanding of both these wastewater systems, across different economic and social contexts was found and placed within a single decision making framework.

A study was conducted to determine the diversity of birds and reptiles in the Iramoo Green Web, which is a series of open spaces in a rapidly developing urban area of the north-western suburbs of Melbourne, Victoria.

This study was concerned with determining the competencies required and the subsequent education needed for the implementation of inclusive practices within the park and recreation industry. With 3.6 million people or 19 percent of its total population possessing a disability, Australia is experiencing a transformation of its programs and practices as they relate to the inclusion of people with disabilities. Especially noteworthy is the impact that inclusion is having on the park and recreation industry. In order for park and recreation professionals to achieve a cutting edge standard of service delivery to people of all abilities, a study was undertaken to determine the skills, ability and knowledge that are needed to ensure inclusive practices. Parks and Leisure Australia agreed, through its National Board of Directors, for its members to serve as participants in this study. The data analysed to obtain the results of the study was gathered from a questionnaire that was mailed to a random sample of eight hundred Parks and Leisure Australia members. It sought information in the following areas: • The importance of competencies to park and recreation professionals' jobs for including people with disabilities. • The level of perceived competence park and recreation professionals possess for including people with disabilities. • The professional development needed by park and recreation professionals for implementation of inclusive practices. This study examined the results of a needs assessment of Parks and Leisure Australia members and provides a list of recommendations for continuing education programs that will assist the park and recreation industry to break down existing barriers to inclusive practice. The results of this study will provide important opportunities for the enhancement of the professional development requirements of modern day park and recreation professionals and the promotion of the rights of people with disabilities and their families.

The early life stages of the macroalgal species Phyllospora comosa, Hormosira banksii and Macrocystis angustifolia were exposed to treatments of sewage effluent, copper, chromium and reduced salinity. Germination and mortality of P. comosa and H. banksii zygotes and embryos, and germination and germination tube growth of M. angustifolia spores were utilised as acute toxicity test endpoints. Germination bioassays were of 48 hours duration whilst mortality bioassays were conducted over 96 hours. Growth of all three species and sporophyte production of M angustifolia were utilised as chronic bioassay endpoints. These tests were conducted over 2-3 weeks. It was found that sensitivity of test end points varied depending on exposure time. Generally longer exposure times resulted in significantly lower threshold concentrations. Growth and sporophyte production or reproduction bioassays showed greater sensitivity in the test species, whilst the shorter tests tended to produce higher threshold concentrations. Primary treated effluent exerted greatest effects on the early life stages of the algae followed by chlorinated secondary and secondary treated effluent.

The potential for the development and the application of magnetic particle technology to environmental and wildlife remediation has been explored. Initial studies have been carried out on the ability of iron particles with polyethylene (PE) or polyvinylchloride (PVC) to magnetically harvest various contaminants. In this context, methods have been developed for the production of research quantities of particles of different sizes and with various textures. The pick up characteristics for a variety of contaminants have been experimentally and theoretically investigated. In particular, a mathematical model for the characteristic adsorption isotherm has been developed and several efficiency parameters have been defined. The effects of the nature of the substrate from which the contaminant is removed and the contaminant hydrophobicity and viscosity have also been investigated. The ability of PE and PVC coated particles in the remediation of soil contaminated with various pesticides has been explored. Uncoated iron particles have also been found to be effective in the remediation of various contaminants. In particular, iron powder was found to be almost 100% effective in the magnetic harvesting of various contaminants from a glass substrate.

The thesis examines the popular environmental education practice of the Center for Environmental Concerns – Philippines (CEC) and distils insights into educational practice in a globalizing world. Progressive contextualization is used to examine the development of CEC’s educational practice. It is a human ecology research method developed by Andrew Vayda that studies people and environment interactions within progressively denser or wider contexts. In the context of educational practice, CEC described it as a process of adjusting the module to the local context. The research observed educational tensions between the context of the local and the global, the emphasis of content on the biophysical and political, and the methodology as participatory and prescriptive. The thesis identified time, space, and the context of the learners as the key local factors of progressive contextualization. An action research approach and an emphasis on participation were identified as the key organizational and educational processes. The main organizational structures that contributed to these processes were the People's Faculty and the progressive people's movement in the Philippines. The research observed that although progressive contextualization initially involved the localization of the education module, it was equally an organizational development process for CEC and the organizations it worked with. Examination of CEC's approaches to linking the local to national context indicated a development from an ecological, geographic and holistic approach to a mode of production analysis. However, these same frameworks were not applied in dealing with the global context, which emphasized scale and space, rather than holistic relationships. The thesis proposes a description of progressive contextualization in relation to popular environmental education as an on-going and reciprocal process of educational and organizational development that begins from the local context. It establishes local-global links that are not limited to space and scale and values the intermediary role of non-governmental organizations and the networks of local efforts and organizations as part of this process.

The economic impacts of climate change have the potential to be unevenly distributed around the globe. In particular, the developing regions of the world will likely be the most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. In this dissertation the region of South East Asia is the focus with respect to the economics of climate change, an area of economics that is subject to great uncertainties with respect to data, model specification and results. South East Asia is a rapidly developing region both economically and socially, and in an environmental sense the countries of the region encompass similar ecosystems and climatic conditions. Both of these factors make it an interesting region for study. This dissertation examines the region's vulnerability to the impacts of climate change, forecasts the environmental and economic outcomes for the region arising from it's vulnerability and also the opportunities these factors provide for policy actions towards alleviating climate change vulnerability, particularly through adaptation.

In recent times, with regards to rural water supplies in Victoria and most other parts of Australia, emphasis is placed more on efficient use of existing water resources than on new resource developments. This is especially true for irrigation systems. This emphasis is mainly due to limited funds available for construction works, lack of suitable hydrologic sites, and the spirited and justifiable lobbying of enviromnental groups against construction of new projects. Hence to meet the increased water demands, efficient operation of existing irrigation systems is required. Recently with the high computational power of personal computers, irrigation scheduling based on an accounting of soil water budget components has become popular around the world. This research project focuses on such irrigation scheduling techniques, with the aim of improving the efficiency of water use, thus leading to conservation of water resources.

Rivers can provide valuable supply of drinking water for humans, irrigation water to farmlands, water for hydropower and home for many aquatic ecosystems. However, due to population increase and its adverse effects on the rivers, inappropriate farming activities in the river catchments, and other similar adverse activities, the water quality in rivers has generally declined. Therefore, appropriate river water quality management strategies aimed at controlling and improving water quality should be seriously considered. At least, these strategies should not reduce further degradation of current water quality in rivers. To manage river water quality in the most effective and efficient way, the cause and effect relationships of the river system must first be investigated. One example of this cause and effect relationship is the inappropriate setting of effluent license limits for sewage treatment plants (STPs). Setting low effluent license limits causes poor river water quality with high concentration of nutrients in rivers. Water quality simulation modelling tools are extensively used in water quality management to identify these cause and effect relationships, and to simulate and study the effects of various 'what-if management strategies prior to their implementation. Such a simulation model is not available to model the Yarra River, its tributaries and associated STPs, and therefore, the development of a water quality model for Yarra River is the focus of this thesis.

Arsenic has found widespread use as a component in a variety of formulations designed to control or eliminate a variety of insect and fungicidal pests. Arsenical wastes are also often produced during the extraction of metals such as copper, gold, nickel and tin. Consequently, there are large numbers of sites contaminated with toxic arsenic residues. The environmental treatment of arsenic is complicated by the fact that it has a variety of valence states. This, coupled with the plurality of regulatory leaching test variants used, has made it impossible to gauge which of a number of Solidification/Stabilization (S/S) processes are the most effective. Cement based Solidification/Stabilization technology currently provides the most promising solution for the disposal of arsenic wastes.

The investigations reported in this thesis examined the relationships between biomass reduction (burning and mowing), soil disturbance, soil nutrient levels (N, P and K) and weed invasion in native grassland remnants in Victoria, Australia. The study was carried out at three native grassland remnant sites, Derrimut grassland reserve, Laverton grassland reserve and Victoria University of Technology, St. Albans campus grassland reserve on the westem edge of Melboume, Australia. These grassland remnants belong to the Western Basalt Plains grassland community which is listed as threatened in Victoria, and which forms part of the lowland temperate grasslands which once extended across south eastern Australia. A major threat to the survival of these communities is invasion by a variety of weeds. Weed invasion is often markedly enhanced by disturbance of the soil due to ploughing and overgrazing. It is known that some type of biomass reduction (burning, mowing or grazing) is required to prevent the dominant native perennial tussock grasses from over shadowing the diversity of forbs that grow between the tussocks, but the effects of various biomass reduction methods on weediness, and the underlying causes of weediness, have not been studied in any depth. The outcomes of the investigation are currently being applied to the management and rehabilitation of lowland grassland remnants. Most previous studies of lowland grassland rehabilitation and management have assumed that the key determinant of competition between native and exotic plant species in lowland grasslands is above-ground cover. The results reported in this thesis clearly show that below-ground competition for nutrients is also important in determining the extent of exotic and native plant growth in intact and disturbed areas. The successful establishment of native species during revegetation, with low levels of weed growth, will depend on the extent to which below ground growth of natives is achieved to lower available nutrient levels quickly, and prevent large scale growth of exotics. The management of lowland grassland remnants with low levels of flatweeds and annual grasses will likewise depend on the maintenance of a healthy sward of native vegetation which can keep available nutrients in the soil at low levels, especially when above-ground cover is removed by biomass reduction actions such as burning, mowing and grazing.

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the Shankland Valley Wetland for its ability to treat urban stormwater pollutants. Monitoring was conducted during two moderate storm events and two non-storm events. Pollutant concentration was measured at 24 hour intervals over periods of approximately one week.

The present study examines the role of native landowners in the operation of Fiji's parks and reserves. It is anticipated that the attitude and level of involvement of native landowners will depend upon the level of economic and/or tourism development that has occured in the particular park and reserve. It is also anticipated that hostility and antagonism towards the park and reserve system will occur in certain areas where the prevailing arrangements are not perceived as delivering tangible benefits or where alternative forms of activity are available to the native landowners.

A 3.5 kilometer stretch of the Maribyrnong river estuary was investigated in 1994 in order to monitor and record a possible outbreak of a phytoplankton bloom.

The primary objective of the work in this thesis was to isolate and characterize microorganisms that can grow on high molecular weight PAHs as a sole carbon and energy source, and, in addition, totally degrade these compounds to carbon dioxide and water.

This thesis reports results of a study of the control and improvement of the covered 115E Anaerobic Reactor at Western Treatment Plant. The 115E Reactor treats 60 ML of sewage per day and produces methane which is harvested for power production. The objectives of this research were to identify ways to enhance treatment efficiency and reduce variability in effluent composition from anaerobic ponds. In particular, the research examined the potential benefits of improved trade waste management and process control.

Werribee Treatment Complex has been regarded as a waste treatment facility which is both environmentally friendly and economically sustainable. In the treatment processes, recycling of resources is maximized while energy input is minimized. Moreover, through livestock production in the land and grass filtration areas, as much as 20% of the total operation cost of the complex is recovered. However, in terms of the volume of waste water treated per unit area, grass and land filtration are considered to be less efficient than stabilization ponds. It has been proposed that those areas currently used for land and grass filtration should be converted to stabilization ponds in order to increase the overall efficiency of the complex to meet the augmented sewage loading of the increasing population in Melboume (Lane and Peake, 1990). Clearly, more information on the operational principles and treatment efficiency of the waste stabilization ponds at the Werribee Treatment Complex is needed to allow an informed decision to be made. This study examined a waste stabilization pond series at the Werribee Treatment Complex. The nutrient dynamics and the prevailing ecological processes in the ponds were investigated. The findings showed that the quality of the effluent was largely controlled by the detention time of the system (cf Meron et al, 1965). In particular, prolonged detention would result in a significant increase in phytoplankton abundance which is a key-component in the treatment process. The algae not only stabilize the nutrients through direct uptake, they also produce oxygen via photosynthesis, facilitating aerobic degradation and nitrification by aerobic and nitrifying bacteria respectively. In the pond series at Werribee, ammonia in the raw sewage was completely removed through nitrification as well as algal cell uptake during periods of longest detention time. On the other hand, removal of phosphorus was insignificant throughout the study period. According to Gakstatter et al (1978), water bodies receiving effluent from waste water treatment facility such as Port Phillip Bay are usually nitrogen-limited for algal growth. Therefore, the control the nitrogen content in the effluent should be of greater concern than phosphorus.