Search

The first chapter consists of a systematic literature review, which asks the research question: what does the literature to date tell us about schemas in psychosis and at-risk populations? A systematic search identified a total of 23 studies that met the inclusion criteria. Negative schema were elevated across the continuum of clinical psychotic groups, but were not characteristic of non-clinical samples having psychotic like experiences. Associations were found between schemas and a range of psychotic symptomology in clinical groups. There was preliminary evidence suggesting schemas may partially mediate the relationship between trauma and psychotic symptoms, lending support to cognitive models of psychosis. One intervention study showed the potential benefits of targeting underlying self-schema. Firm conclusions cannot be drawn at this time as the majority of studies employed a cross-sectional design. The second chapter examines the empirical research investigating associations between schemas and beliefs about voices, and the relationship between the hearer and their voice. A total of 44 voice-hearing participants completed questionnaires assessing schemas, beliefs about voices, and the perceived relationship with their voice. A clinician rating scale assessed different dimensions of their voice-hearing experience. Beliefs about voices correlated with negative voice content and schemas. After controlling for negative voice content, schemas were estimated to predict 1-17% of the variance in the six beliefs about voices; three of the associations reached statistical significance. Schemas also correlated with dimensions of relating between the hearer and their voice. This study provides evidence that schemas may be important when considering beliefs about voices and the perceived relationship between the hearer and their voice. The third chapter discusses the implications for theory development, clinical practice, and future research, arising from the first two papers. A reflective commentary is provided at the close of the thesis.

This dissertation studies how teachers in higher education use learning management systems (LMS) to see and understand student engagement and risk status. Educational technology such as LMS are designed with implicit conceptualizations and instantiations of learning related concepts. This study focuses on the concepts of student engagement and risk status as they are prominently featured in LMS metrics and marketing. Based on interviews and surveys from a cross-disciplinary sample of 21 professors at a North American university, this study answers two research questions. First, how do instructors define engagement and risk status? This study showed that instructors define engagement and risk status in rich way. The instructors in this study described engagement in terms of student actions related to deeper thinking about class content and stereotypical class participation. The instructors in this study described risk status in terms of both fixed and changeable risk factors. In a thematic qualitative analysis these conceptual understandings are compared to how the LMS instantiated these concepts. The second research question asks: How does the LMS inform teachers about students' engagement and risk status? The instructors in this study described the LMS informing them through its online activity logs, work submissions, and gradebook. However, most of the participants reported that the LMS had limited usefulness and instead relied on personal interactions with students. To conclude, these findings are interpreted in the contexts of increased demand for constructivist pedagogy, accountability, and datafication. Specific questions are proposed for LMS developers and adopters. These questions center on the argument that throughout the LMS adoption process, from development to use, it is critical to consider conceptual definitions and their alignment if LMS deeply support instructional practice and student learning.

NCLB and now the more recent ESSA law hold school districts responsible for graduation rates, passing state mandated assessments and dropout prevention. The purpose of this mixed methods case study was to examine the effectiveness of a system wide middle school intervention program that addressed the educational needs of struggling students. It was also conducted to identify school instructional policies and procedures, curriculum frameworks, ongoing assessments, and planning and decision making structures aimed to accelerate the academic performance of overage students. Data from the school district’s student management system was collected to analyze Research Question 1: What impact on student attendance and academic performance will the intervention have on participating overage middle school students compared to overage middle school students not receiving the interventions? Thirteen school district employees were interviewed and responded to Research Question 2: What are the central office and school based stakeholder’s perceptions of the overall effectiveness of the system-wide intervention program? The study found that students in the overage pilot had better attendance, higher grades in Math and ELA and performed better on the STARR, the Texas state mandated assessment, then overage students who were not in the pilot. The four themes that emerged from the stakeholders’ perceptions of the overall all effectiveness of the system wide intervention program were the Need for a Differentiated Program Model, a Need for Early Intervention, Perception of the Web-based Curriculum as Effective, and a Need for A Systemic Process to Identify and Track Overage Students. Contributions to the success of students in the intervention were also impacted by principal leadership and focus, program expectations for student work, scheduling and implementation of the programs, teacher certification and training and mentor incentives and motivation.

Bipolar disorder is a serious psychiatric illness that is characterized by mania. Many patents with bipolar disorder also exhibit significant deficits in cognitive processing across multiple domains, including executive function. The research included here attempts to better characterize the deficits in youth with and at-risk for bipolar disorder in two executive function subdomains, sustained attention and interference control.Chapter 2A contains the results of an imaging study of sustained attention in bipolar youth, which was conducted concurrently with a double-blind, placebo-controlled study of ziprasidone for the treatment of mania in adolescents. Results showed that compared with placebo, treatment with ziprasidone was associated with greater increases in activation in Brodmann areas (BA) 11 and 47. Patients who subsequently responded to ziprasidone also showed significantly greater deactivation in right BA 47 prior to treatment, and the activation in this region at baseline was negatively correlated with symptom improvement. Similarly, Chapter 2B contains the results of an imaging study using the same sustained attention task, which was conducted concurrently with an open-label study of carbamazepine for the treatment of mania in adolescents. In this study, treatment with carbamazepine was associated with increases in activation in BA 10.Chapter 3 presents the results of a behavioral study using a modified version of the flanker task to assess sustained attention in youth with bipolar disorder. Results showed that youth with bipolar disorder had deficits in interference control that were detected as increased reaction time and decreased accuracy on incongruent trials. An analysis of effects associated with conflict-driven adaptation did not yield significant results. Chapter 4 presents the results of an imaging study which attempted to characterize the neural correlates of the behavioral deficits demonstrated in Chapter 3. Youth with bipolar disorder, youth at-risk for bipolar disorder, and healthy youth were recruited to participate in an fMRI study using a modified version of the arrow flanker task. The groups performed similarly on all behavioral measures, and all groups showed similar patterns of activation in BA 46 and the dorsal anterior cingulate. However, there were significant differences in functional activation patterns cross several of the regions considered. Youth with mania showed decreased activation in left BA 11/12 and the right anterior insula relative to those without bipolar disorder. Those atrisk for bipolar disorder who had not yet developed mania showed increased recruitment of BA 10 on the left and right subgenual and pregenual cingulate. Those with a family history of bipolar disorder showed an altered pattern of caudate recruitment regardless of diagnosis. Together these studies demonstrate that executive function may serve as a reasonable intermediate phenotype for future research in bipolar disorder. Larger sample sizes and more detailed assessment of symptoms and cognitive function will help to determine if the alterations detected represent risk factors, markers of resilience, or endophenotypes, and if these markers can have clinical utility in predicting illness onset, prognosis, or medication response.

The current literature on truancy diversion court programs has failed to examine middle and high school truants’ perceptions regarding how well truancy diversion court programs improve school attendance and performance. As a result, the purpose of this study was to examine participants’ perceptions regarding how well the Project Reconnect Diversion Program empowered their improved school attendance, compliance with school rules, and completion of classroom assignments. The researcher used a case study design to investigate the participants’ perceptions of the Project Reconnect Diversion Program. Purposive sampling was employed to select the participants who completed the Project Reconnect Diversionary Program during the 2010-2011 school year. Data were collected through individual interviews and small group meetings. The Project Reconnect Diversionary Program was found to employ practices that reportedly influenced the participants’ school attendance, completion of class assignments, and improved grades. Moreover, the weekly check-in meetings with the social worker were reported to be beneficial and empowering. The findings from this study permitted the researcher to make several recommendations regarding truancy diversion program evaluation as well as middle and high school models for retention and graduation.

This study examined the Summer Transition Program in a large suburban school district. One of the common concerns of education leaders is the number of students who choose to dropout of high school. The eighth to ninth grade Summer Transition Program has been implemented to address the high school dropout issue and was the focus of this study. The researcher examined if participation in the Summer Transition Program could be predicted by student subgroup, to what extent, if any, participation in the Summer Transition Program had on the academic success in Algebra I, and if there is a relationship with academic success in Algebra I and at-risk factors

The purpose of this study was to explore the characteristics and relationships of participants and non-participants of the summer academic program in a local school district. The summer program also includes a component providing support to students as they progress through four years of high school. The study used 5,369 student records to conduct the study of the first cohort of students who entered their ninth grade in the 2009-2010 academic year.

This study examined the efficacy of using Headsprout Early Reading (Headsprout, 2007) to supplement a balanced literacy curriculum for kindergarten and first grade students in a suburban public school system. Headsprout, which is an example of computer aided instruction (CAI), provided internet-based, supplemental reading instruction that incorporates the five critical components of reading instruction cited by the National Reading Panel (NRP, 2000). The school system implemented Headsprout as a standard protocol, Tier 2 intervention within their Response to Intervention (RTI) process. The study included kindergarten and first grade students from across the school system who were identified as at risk for reading failure based on fall Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy (DIBELS) scores. Kindergarten and first grade students identified as at risk for reading failure who participated in Headsprout were compared with matched groups of kindergarten and first grade students who did not participate in Headsprout. Overall, neither kindergarten nor first grade students who participated in Headsprout gained meaningful educational benefit from the CAI instruction provided by Headsprout beyond the benefit they received from participating in the general education, RTI Tier 1, balanced literacy curriculum that was available to all kindergarten and first grade students.

This study sought to replicate the finding that adolescents at risk for developing bipolar disorder (BPD) have facial affect processing deficits as well as to examine the relationship between affect processing and family environment. Participants with a family history of bipolar disorder with (AR + BPD) and without (AR) the disorder themselves were compared with healthy adolescents (HC) on tasks of facial affect recognition, affect discrimination, affect acuity, facial recognition and attention. These results did not identify any differences between groups on any aspect of affect labeling or interpretation. Groups did differ with respect to family functioning. Specifically, AR + BPD and AR parents reported less expressiveness than HC and AR + BPD and AR parents and children reported greater conflict than HC. Greater expressiveness was consistently related to better affective processing across all three groups. For those with bipolar disorder, high child reported organization was related to more accurate interpretive rating of sad-neutral faces. For those who were only at risk, higher organization correlated with poorer labeling of fearful faces and poorer affective interpretation ratings.

Low socio-economic status (SES) students are less likely to gain access to the gatekeeper mathematics courses necessary for high school graduation and entrance to college. This study examined the effects of a constructivist-based fraction intervention on mathematics achievement, self-efficacy beliefs, and Algebra One enrollment of mathematically at risk low SES sixth grade students. Students' fifth grade mathematics CST and sixth grade fraction benchmark scores served as covariates in each analysis. Achievement was measured by the students' scores on their seventh grade fraction benchmark and mathematics California Standards Test (CST). A Fraction Self-Efficacy Survey measured students' beliefs. The sixth grade fraction intervention was a one week, 35 hour program. The experiment included 45 students who attended the intervention and 43 matched students who served as the comparison group. Teacher effects were controlled. The scores of students in the treatment group were significantly higher on both their seventh grade fraction benchmark (p < 0.001) and mathematics CST (p < 0.001). Students in the treatment group scored higher in overall self-efficacy beliefs than students in the comparison group and, although there was a trend towards significance (p = 0.065), the difference was not statistically significant. Additionally, logistic regression was used to determine that students' self-efficacy beliefs partially mediated the relationship between participation in the fraction intervention and their enrollment in Algebra One. Students who attended the intervention were three times as likely to enroll in Algebra One as their matched peers.

Student mobility can be described as movement from one school to another for any reason beyond grade promotion. Student mobility affects many areas of student learning. The causes of student mobility include disadvantages within the family unit, student behavior issues, and complicated school district initiatives. Research shows that student mobility issues affect all demographical areas; however, low-socioeconomic, urban areas have the highest percentage rate of movement. Student mobility negatively impacts student achievement in the areas of academics, social adjustment, and psychological well being. Although there is no overall solution to the mobility crisis, there are many strategies that can be implemented that will help decrease the number of transient students. The purpose of this study is create and utilize a predictive regression model in order to predict Criterion Reference Competency Test (CRCT) reading scores for at risk mobile students. Intense analysis of a valid prediction model by concentrated stakeholder collaboration can start a school district on a more successful path of addressing student mobility.

The research examines the perspectives of male Hispanic students as to why they were not academically achieving in a selected continuation high school. The study used a qualitative research design by interviewing seven male Hispanic students for the study. The researcher was able to gather enough data from the students to develop an understanding as to why the students were not academically achieving in the selected continuation high school. The study examined some important ingredients that could help students succeed in continuation high school. It highlights the importance of good teaching strategies and caring teachers who have the temperament, ability, and sensitivity to work with students who are at risk of failing. It also highlights the need for school administrators to create a positive school culture based on trust and respect.

This study represents the third year of a three-year investigation of the effects of kindergarten literacy intervention on the reading risk of urban learners. The 41 available second-grade participants included African Americans (44%), European Americans (14%), and English language learners (ELLs) (22%). All of the participants were from low socioeconomic backgrounds and qualified for free or reduced lunch. The three groups consisted of 13 students who had received one year of supplementary early literacy intervention, 14 students who had received two years of supplementary early literacy intervention, and 14 comparison students who did not receive supplementary intervention. During Year 3 none of the three groups received supplemental instruction. This year was devoted to follow-up assessments of the students' reading performance one to two years following intervention. All participants were progressively monitored on oral reading fluency and comprehension as measured by the DIBELS. Additionally, the three groups were compared pre- and posttest on the Woodcock Johnson-III and the CTOPP. Thus, the purpose of this year of follow-up was to determine the relative second-grade reading status of students relative to the amount of treatment they received. A secondary interest was to assess the relative performance of some especially high-risk subgroups such as ELLs and African American males. Data were analyzed with regression models, contrasts, growth curves, and repeated measures mixed-effects modeling. Results showed that the strong responders (One-Year ERI Treatment students) maintained gains made from the intervention and performed higher than their initially higher performing comparison peers (Comparison group) on all measures assessed. The treatment resistors (Two-Year ERI Treatment students) continued to make progress through second grade, but the gains were not large enough to close the reading gap. Many of the Comparison students, who were initially at low or no risk in kindergarten, were found to have lost ground, and were at risk for reading failure. Some of the ELLs showed similar reading performance to their Non-ELL peers and continued to maintain the reading gains made through the end of second grade. The African American males were found to be reading at approximately one grade level lower than their same age peers and the achievement gap continued to widen with time. The findings highlight the importance of early literacy intervention, progressive monitoring, and continued supplementary instruction to prevent and minimize reading risk.

Phonological awareness skills (i.e., phonemic awareness, rhyme awareness, awareness of alliteration, etc.) are important to the reading ability of all participants (National Early Literacy Panel, 2007; National Reading Panel, 2000). More specifically, these skills are critical to the success of participants defined as at risk for reading disabilities (Adams, 1990; Juel, 1988). This study analyzed the effects of explicit instruction in phonemic awareness, rhyme awareness and awareness of alliteration as well as instruction in discrimination of the differences among the skills and their relationships. This study also provided a basis for introducing a computerized format of the Get it, Got it, Go and to compare the results obtained from the computer-based version with the traditional format of the assessment. Results indicate that participants responded favorably to the explicit instruction through increased responding if they had evidence of the individual skills prior to the beginning of instruction and emergence of the skill and growth in responding after instruction started. The computerized format was also found to be a valid and reliable format of the Get it, Got it Go assessment instrument. Lastly, contributions of this study and future research are presented

This multiple case study investigated impact and perceptions of students enrolled in the Watson Digital Bridge Academy Foundation Course at Cabrillo College in Watsonville, California. The Watsonville Digital Bridge Academy is an innovative community college program that integrates four theoretical frameworks in student learning: self-efficacy, accelerated learning, team management, and developing a desire for learning. Students identified three crucial components of the Foundation Course as impacting their success in and desire to continue college. First, students believed the self-assessment of their team networking skills was useful during and after the Foundation Course. As part of identifying their own team interaction style, students also reported they learned to understand and appreciate differences in others. Second, students believed the Learning-to-Learn skills made them more efficient learners, able to take notes and engage with texts. Students were amazed that they had read and written so extensively, and felt they could approach other college assignments with new skills. Third, students were energized by the social research project that required them to gather data from community sources, facilitate group discussions and speak in front of others. While each of these components resulted in important skills, the combination had a remarkable impact on these students' beliefs about themselves. Students described themselves as more self-confident, more aware of their own strengths and weakness, more capable of academic success because of their reading comprehension and note-taking skills, and more motivated to continue their education. This case study confirmed much of the literature about the importance of learning to manage teamwork and applying these skills to real-life community projects. Community colleges play a large role in helping at-risk students achieve economic and social advantages. The key to student success is to ensure that for high-risk students, the transition into a college learning environment is both challenging, as well as a safe and comfortable environment. The Watsonville Digital Bridge Academy Foundation Course presents a unique model designed to help students make a seamless transition into the college environment with the goal of teaching students essential academic skills to become successful in college.

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to understand how natural mentoring helps at-risk African-American male adolescents avoid high-risk behaviors. Natural mentors are people with whom mentees have natural relationships outside of their immediate family, such as community members, teachers, ministers, extended family members and coaches. The participants were two current and two former at-risk African-American male adolescents who were either currently living in, or formerly lived in, high-risk environments. Participants had experience with a natural mentor-mentee relationship and were interested in talking about their experience. The present study’s mentoring relationships consisted of three male-to-male relationships and one male-to-female relationship. Several characteristics of natural mentoring impacted the mentees in this study. Mentees related examples of mentors’ caring behavior, understanding, comfortable conversations, unconditional support, and commitment to the relationship. When natural mentors display these characteristics in relationships with at-risk African-American male adolescents, the mentees voluntarily assist in changing their attitudes and behaviors and enhance their chances of living more meaningful and productive lives. Concept of a Natural Mentor and Effects of Natural Mentoring relationships were the two themes that emerged from the interviews of participants. The Concept of a Natural Mentor revealed that natural mentors are people who naturally assist in others’ times of need. The concept of being a natural mentor is wrapped up in commitment and selflessness. Natural mentors’ commitment focuses on their relationships with at-risk African-American male adolescents, their willingness to allow mentees to make mistakes without judging them, and the flexibility given to mentees to make their own decisions. The second theme to emerge was the Effects of Natural Mentoring relationships. Natural mentoring relationships allow mentees to adapt concepts and ideals that allow them to successfully mature into productive adults. Natural mentoring builds resiliency in mentees and helps them avoid at-risk behavior and overcome the fear of failure. Mentees who are successful have natural mentors in their lives that help them with emotional support and encourage them to learn adult behaviors and responsibilities while developing social skills. Among the leadership lessons taught and learned were servant-leadership, character building, meaning making, and the transferability of natural mentoring to formal mentoring relationships. More research is encouraged on the nature of caring relationships and the ethic of care among men, the continuity of natural mentoring relationships across generations, and resiliency and the fear of failure among at-risk adolescents.

This dissertation examines how scholars have attempted to capture social contexts via theoretical and empirical representations of ecological risk, proposes a theoretical framework for thinking about risk, and tests two theoretical propositions about the nature of risk. The first study begins by considering the nature and consequences of diversity in risk terminology. A review of studies published in leading psychology journals indicates that explicit definitions of risk are the exception rather than the rule, and that definitions of risk and risk factors vary considerably. This chapter goes on to articulate four defining properties of risk (risk as a process, risk as a causal framework, risk as time-sensitive and developmental, and risk as conditional) and to propose an integrative process model of risk. The next two studies examine the effect of ecological adversities experienced during high school on risk for school dropout with particular attention to two principles of the theoretical model: risk as time-sensitive and risk as conditioned on the combination of adversity experienced. Using multiple waves of data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, the second study examines the length of time for which adversities were experienced and tests whether the effects of adversities are different at different points during adolescence. Replicating previous school dropout research, results indicate the low parent education and indicators of family and neighborhood socioeconomic status increase the risk of school dropout. Results further indicate that considering the chronicity of adversity is important, but that the effects of adversities generally did not differ depending on when they were experienced. The final study uses cluster analyses to group individuals by the number and kinds of adversities they experienced and examines the predictive validity of different configurations of adversity. Results indicate that there are indeed distinct profiles of adversity, with some individuals experiencing only single adversities and others experiencing different combinations of multiple adversities, and that different profiles of adversity confer different degrees of risk for school dropout.

This study investigates the impact of an after-school intervention on student achievement. The study uses two-tailed t tests to compare the growth in actual scale scores achieved by two groups of students taking the North Carolina End of Grade (EOG) test from 1999 to 2001. It compares the scores of those who participated in the Support Our Students (SOS) program to the scores of nonparticipating students to determine the effect that the SOS program had on student performance on the EOG test. To conduct the research, I obtained assistance from Edstar Research in compiling a complete list of all students participating in the SOS program who were in sixth grade in 1998?1999 and who scored a level I or level II on their math/language arts EOG. The identifiers included were county, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, gender, and EOG scores for math and language arts for each of the 1998—1999, 1999—2000, and 2000—2001 school years. With the assistance of the North Carolina Education Data Center, I obtained a data set representing the stratified group of students who were level I or level II who did not participate in the SOS program. This study's findings are as follows: 1. Students who participated in the Support Our Students program for three years in middle school from the years 1998 to 2001 showed no significant difference in math or reading scores from those who did not participate in the program. 2. There was no significant difference in math or reading scores between participating and nonparticipating students in the minority subgroup. 3. There was no significant difference in math or reading scores between participating and nonparticipating students in the free or reduced-price lunch subgroup. 4. There was no significant difference in math or reading scores between participating and nonparticipating students in the male subgroup. 5. There was no significant difference in math or reading scores between participating and nonparticipating students in the female subgroup. The results of this study provide educational leaders with information on how after-school programs function as a method of addressing the needs of students at risk of academic failure as defined by their progress on the North Carolina EOG tests. This study also serves to raise awareness of the larger issue of discovering and developing effective interventions for the large number of students projected to fall short of student accountability and promotion standards in the years to come.

This multiple case study explores the supervisory and evaluative roles of three elementary school site administrators in relation to the literacy pull-out programs on each school site. These three administrators all worked at sites with low SES student populations yet had attained high standardized testing scores as compared to comparable schools in the state of California. Cross-case analysis found that these three administrators all had a strong knowledge base in the area of literacy development. They used this knowledge base as the foundation for the supervision and evaluation of literacy programs on their sites. As instructional leaders, they reflected upon individual student data and monitored the literacy programs in an ongoing manner. The cyclic nature of the supervision and evaluation allowed them to continually improve instruction for their at-risk students.

The simultaneous and successive cognitive processes of students with and without LD were investigated. 51 middle school students with and without learning disabilities in grades 7 and 8 were selected for the study. Based on reading performance on the WIAT-II reading decoding subtest, students were assigned to one of three research groups: Learning disabilities (LDB), students without learning disabilities who are below average readers (NLDB), and students without learning disabilities who are average readers (NLDA). The Das-Naglieri Cognitive Assessment System (DNCAS) was administered to all students to determine simultaneous and successive processing proficiency. Independent samples t-tests were conducted to determine processing differences between LDB and NLDA; LDB and NLDB; and NLDB and NLDA. Significant simultaneous and successive cognitive processing differences between LDB and NLDB were not found. These results appear consistent with the existing literature, and call into question the effectiveness of the current definition of LD to discriminate between LD and non-LD students.

.

This study examined associations between foster mothers' state of mind in regards to attachment (as measured by the Adult Attachment Projective [AAP]) and foster mothers' descriptions of their foster children (as measured by the Parent Development Interview [PDI]) for 37 foster mothers. Sixteen foster mothers were classified as secure-autonomous while twenty-one were classified as insecure in regards to attachment. Approximately sixty percent of the insecure foster mothers were classified as unresolved with regards to attachment. It was hypothesized that there would be differences between secure and insecure foster mothers on the 13 PDI subscale scores. Results indicated that the two groups (secure and insecure foster mothers) differed significantly on 7 constructs in the PDI; namely pleasure, business of caregiving, achievement, comfort/safe haven, perspective taking, enmeshment, pleasure and pain. Findings suggest foster mothers' attachment status is related to their representations of their foster children. The distributions of attachment classifications in the current study are consistent with those found in other studies and suggest that foster mothers are unresolved in regards to attachment. It is suggested that focus should be on further research and the development of intervention programs related to quality foster parenting. The implications of these findings and directions for future research are discussed.

At-risk students in a secondary alternative school program were asked to complete an open, subjective questionnaire that explored their perceptions regarding both regular and alternative schools' attitudes toward, and response to, them as individuals. There also were questions about how these attitudes and responses made them feel about themselves and their school experience. Grounded theory-methodology was used to structure the study. Their feelings seemed to focus on basic human values and adult caring. Results support Maslow's theory that both physical and psychological needs fulfillment drive human decision and activity. Students indicated that when basic issues of safety and support were provided for in the school environment, they had more energy and concentration for growth and self-actualization through learning. Results of this qualitative study indicated that educators and support personnel should consider this area important to explore before reaching conclusions regarding how to communicate effectively with, or further restructure programs to serve at-risk students.

Studies of female at-risk students have proved minimal with specific regard to those leaving the comprehensive high school in order that they may attend alternative programs. Research on related literature concerning the history of education in the United States, effective instructional practices, appropriate grade level curriculum, school structure and climate, and at-risk students with emphasis on the female gender was examined. Studies were also completed using survey instruments and focused interviews involving students enrolled at three continuation high schools in northern California. Students responded that attendance and low academic performance influenced their decision to leave the comprehensive high school. Other factors affecting: their enrollment included large class size, lack of teacher instructional support, mismatch of student ability to courses in which they were enrolled, and an insufficient offering of courses and extra curricular options that were attractive to them. Students did acknowledge that they were encouraged to do their best by teachers at the continuation high school. Easily established friendships was a second positive reflection of participants. Recommendations for instructional application and future research are included within the dissertation. The research of this study focused on site controlled factors which influenced female students' decision to discontinue their education at the comprehensive high school in favor of an alternative educational program. The findings of this research, therefore, is under the control of both educators and policymakers and very much in the realm of direct influence. Educational leaders are encouraged to review these findings for consideration in refining school practices and decisions for restructuring school design.

This study had three primary purposes. One was to compare the differences and similarities between a 'traditional' public high school and one geared specifically toward 'at-risk' students, showing the extent to which these environments may influence student experiences and perceptions of schooling, education, and post-high school aspirations. Another purpose was to find out how aware students were of the 'at risk' concept, to determine how they conceptualize and use the term, and to ascertain any influence that the term may carry in regard to how students perceive themselves and their progress in school. The third purpose was to gain a better understanding of the factors and circumstances influencing why students stay in school and why they drop out, specific emphasis being given to determining why students initially begin to consider leaving school without graduating. To investigate these issues, ethnographic research was carried out in two public high schools of a large midwestern city. One school--Whitmore--was a large 'traditional' high school, while the other school--Cramden--was geared toward students prone to dropping out. Over the course of the 1995-1996 school year, student interviews and classroom observations were made in these two schools, and this data served as the basis of this analysis. Results from this study show that while students are aware of the 'at-risk' concept, the term is not frequently used within student circles and has no direct effect on how they progress academically and socially through school. The data also shows that while most students do not personally consider themselves 'at-risk', many of them have nevertheless considered dropping out of school at some point during their school careers. Although most students realized the necessity of gaining a high school diploma and professed to having post-high school goals that required a good education, many were not actively exhibiting attitudes and behaviors that illustrated this belief. This, I believe, is part of the apathy that is currently permeating American education, which is part of a phenomenon that I refer to as 'the culture of risk'.

This dissertation is about how perceptions of school membership influence high school students' academic development, particularly adolescents at risk of educational failure. Specifically, I draw on psychological, sociological, and educational theory to create a measure of perceived school membership that consists of three, interrelated dimensions commonly discussed in the literature: (1) students' feelings of belonging (e.g., Do students feel their teachers care about them? Do students feel that they fit in with other students in the school?); (2) students' commitment to school (e.g., Do students feel that school is important for their future?), and; (3) students' commitment to academic work (e.g., Do students find their academic work personally rewarding?). I use data from a nationally representative sample of high school students to show that these three dimensions of students' feelings are empirically related and form a reliable and valid scale for measuring students' perceptions of school membership. I then use this measure of perceived membership to investigate the causal processes that underlie observed relationships between certain types of student- and school-related variables and several variables measuring students' academic behaviors, attitudes, and achievement. One of the most important findings of this dissertation is that adolescents who may be most in need of perceived school membership and may benefit most from it (i.e., those at risk) perceived lower levels of high-school membership than their peers. An equally important, though not surprising, finding is that perceived school membership is associated with school characteristics. Specifically, perceived membership was higher in schools where students had more authority over academic work and attended homerooms. Results presented in this dissertation also show clear and consistently positive effects of perceived school membership on academic outcomes. That is, students' own perceptions of high-school membership are associated with their positive academic behaviors, attitudes, and achievement. Moreover, there is a contextual effect of high-school membership; academic development is higher in schools characterized by higher average school membership. Finally, results presented in this dissertation suggest that to some extent perceived school membership is more beneficial for at-risk students. Policy implications and limitations are discussed in the final chapter.

The purpose of this study was to examine the mentor relationship in a mentor program and to investigate its effects on at-risk students in relationship to their motivation, communication, and self-concept. The mentor relationship was an essential component of the dropout prevention program. The dropout prevention program was a mentor model designed to help at-risk students improve their grades and attendance and stay in school. Subjects of the investigation were 70 ninth and tenth grade students at a central California high school. The mentor group was pre- and posttested with a Piers-Harris Self-Concept Scale. The mentor group and the mentors were given the Mentor/Mentee Relationship Questionnaire Survey and the Mentor Analysis Questionnaire Survey respectively. It was hypothesized that a mentor relationship had a significant impact on grades and attendance of at-risk students and influenced higher levels of motivation, communication and self-concept. The data were analyzed using statistical procedures of means, t-test, and the analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results of the study supported the development of the mentor relationship as consistent, effective, and beneficial to both mentor and mentee. There were insufficient data to support higher levels of trust and motivation among students who completed the mentor program. However, communication and self-concept scores were higher among those students (p $>$.05). Approximately 75 percent of at-risk students who participated and completed the dropout prevention program (mentor program) significantly improved their communication, self-concept, grades and attendance (p $>$.05). The quality and function of the mentor relationship contributed significantly to the effectiveness of the program.

The purpose of this study, the first of its kind, was undertaken in order to provide an initial description of the various Court and Community School/Day Center programs found within the State of California. Similarities and differences were delineated. A survey was distributed to the 52 counties within California that operated Court and Community School/Day Center programs during the 1993-94 school year. The major areas studied were: (1) curriculum, (2) curriculum development, (3) program philosophy, (4) student assessment, (5) program location, (6) administrative backgrounds, (7) teacher choice, induction, and evaluation, (8) discipline philosophy, (9) student traits, (10) student counseling services, and (11) community agency partnerships. Analysis of the findings indicated that although California Court and Community School/Day Center programs are alternative placements for at-risk students, the strategies implemented were similar to mainstream educational programs. There was evidence to support the notion that many of these educational programs were beginning the implementation of several alternative strategies in all areas; however, California Court and Community School/Day Center programs above all else may not be as alternative as the name suggests.

The intent of this study was to provide a summative evaluation of the educational program at Arizona Boys Ranch. A survey was distributed to teachers and educational administrators, program documents were obtained, interviews were held with those surveyed, and observations took place throughout 1997. The major areas studied were curriculum, student assessment, educational locale, personnel patterns, student characteristics, and community/agency partnerships. The educational program states that it is part of a blend with the overall philosophy of Arizona Boys Ranch, where individual treatment, behavior modification, independent living skills, basic counseling, work ethic, service to the community, restitution, and transition are additional areas of focus. However, a composite of the data indicated a trend of the educational program's use of a traditional curriculum, traditional student assessment strategies, and traditional teacher evaluation methods.