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This thesis concerns: (a) how we should understand legislative words and phrases if they have changed in meaning since they were enacted; and (b) how the UK courts have actually done so. The key question is: should we give legislative language its original meaning (treating its meaning as 'static'); or, if not, should it be given its current meaning (treating its meaning as 'mobile')? I claim that, to address this 'temporal issue', we need to recognise that legislation is generally 'always speaking'. This means that we are to treat it as if it were being constantly re-enacted, and therefore to treat is as if it is able - like, say, traffic signs - to 'speak' to new facts and situations as they arise, on an ongoing basis. But this raises a key question: does legislation necessarily 'say' the same thing each time it 'speaks'? The 'always speaking' metaphor suggests we should give legislation its current meaning; but this creates certain problems, particularly for old legislation where the meaning of words or phrases may have changed radically since the time of enactment. I suggest a two-fold response to this temporal issue. First, that whether legislative language should be given its original meaning (or, if not, it should be given its current meaning) should turn on what the original enacting legislature objectively intended on that question. I call this 'intention-dependence'. Second, that we need to distinguish three notions of meaning that can (and do) differ in mobility. The first notion of 'meaning' is application - roughly, the things that the legislative words apply to at a particular time - and it is typically mobile. A common response to the temporal issue is to distinguish application from meaning, and to give legislation its original meaning but its current application. This response, I argue, is inadequate: because 'meaning' (as opposed to application) conflates two further notions which legislatures often intend to differ in their mobility. The second notion ('character') is the abstract, purely linguistic, meaning of words: the notion of meaning that dictionary definitions attempt to capture. We will usually best understand what someone meant by what they said if we give their words their original character. For example, Queen Anne said of the newly-built St. Paul's Cathedral that it is "awful, artificial, and amusing". To understand that she was complimenting, rather than criticising, the Cathedral's architects we need to travel back to 1711: when those words meant 'awe-inspiring', 'artistic', and 'thought-provoking'. The third notion ('content') is a more concrete, practical, notion of meaning: it is what tells us what a word or phrase actually applies to. Consider a law made in 1791 that forbids 'cruel punishments'. The character of 'cruel' is much the same now as it was in 1791, but what counts as being cruel today is very different from what counted as cruel in 1791 (when flogging and ear-notching, for example, were common punishments). We seem to want to give this law its current content - so that, today, it forbids flogging and ear-notching - rather than its original content. In Part I of this thesis, I articulate these three notions of meaning, show their utility in modelling adjudication, and relate them to three types of uncertainty in meaning: vagueness, context-sensitivity, and ambiguity. I show that this tripartite meaning framework admits of four general approaches to the temporal issue, depending on which notions of meaning are static or mobile. I then address some questions about these approaches: when a legislature might use concept-words referentially, and whether the original legislature's expectations as to how a provision will be applied are binding. Finally, I review some reasons for or against adopting these approaches, and I suggest that they most strongly favour the approach that treats legislative content (and application) as mobile but treats its character as static - which I call a 'Character Originalist' approach. In Part II, I turn to identifying the UK response to the temporal issue. I start with the historical (pre-1997) UK approach. I argue that the standard account of this is flawed: as the two doctrines on which that account is based do not establish what they are standardly taken to establish, and UK courts have treated the content of legislative language as mobile in appropriate cases. I then turn to the modern (1997-) UK approach. I analyse Lord Steyn's landmark judgment in Ireland (1997) and I show that it established two principles: (a) intention-dependence; and (b) what I call the 'Mobility Presumption'. I explore the sources of Ireland, and its aftermath, to identify which notions of meaning we are to presume to be mobile; and I hypothesise that the UK approach is, generally, Character Originalist. Finally, I test that hypothesis against the UK case law: and I conclude that there is strong support for the hypothesis. The meaning of UK legislation may therefore, generally, evolve over time - but only within the bounds set by its original character. So the solution to our puzzle is to recognise the sense in which we must give legislation its original meaning (character) and the sense in which we must give legislation its current meaning (content).

The national maternal mortality crisis in the United States is a problem of urgent importance marked by clear disparities when examining death rates based upon race, ethnicity, and region of the country. Upon reviewing the contextual factors leading to death among mothers during pregnancy and in the year following birth, maternal mortality review committees across the country have identified that the vast majority of pregnancy-related deaths were preventable. Among the preventable deaths, mental health disorders were one of the most commonly identified underlying causes. Postpartum depression is a mental health disorder which plays a role in the maternal mortality crisis through its link to suicide. The postpartum period can be a particularly difficult time due to the vast physiological and psychological transitions in healing after birth and adapting to motherhood. This transition may be particularly difficult for mothers who have experienced maternal morbidity and those who are vulnerable due to the harmful impact of racism. The home environment becomes the setting where physical healing and psychological adaptation to motherhood occur for most women postpartum, indicating the importance of designing the home environment in a way that is maximally supportive of mental health and well-being among mothers. A growing evidence base demonstrates the ability of the built environment to impact mental health and well-being, but there is a major gap in the literature measuring the potential impact of interior design features of the home on mental health and well-being of mothers. This study examined how interior design features of the home may play a role in maternal mental health and well-being in the postpartum period. A sample of 410 women from across the United States participated in an online survey about interior design features present in their home during the first six weeks after giving birth and their mental health and well-being at the time. Results revealed preliminary evidence for the positive impact of supportive interior design features of the home on maternal depressive outcomes through their mediating impact on maternal well-being at home. This study positions interior design research to contribute a diverse perspective for addressing the national maternal mortality crisis, laying the groundwork for future studies which may inform residential interior design policy for maternal mental health and well-being in private single-family homes, multi-family residential settings, and government assisted housing.

Macro changes in the financial arena have prompted ongoing research focused on global economic trends. As America emerges from an era of stagnant wages, rising unemployment, and growing class stratification it is necessary to explore differences in cross-national socioeconomic behavior to address the changing needs of our country. Many studies attempt to describe statistical correlations between economic wealth and social well-being domestically and abroad by utilizing methodological perspectives that do not account for longitudinal change. To address the gap in existing research, this study seeks to measure variations in econometric indicators between the U.S. and Nordic countries to further explicate the dynamic relationship between transnational wealth, welfare, and social well-being over time.

English pronunciation instruction is not a common component of most language classrooms, with the large majority of ESL/EFL teachers lacking the knowledge and expertise to successfully reduce their students’ segmental and suprasegmental pronunciation errors. Therefore, this report aims to provide English teachers with the necessary instructional goals, priorities, and suggestions to guide students in their pronunciation improvement, both during a course and beyond. The first chapter reviews the pronunciation education strategies of the past, and proceeds to offer contemporary approaches for English instructors and learners focusing on autonomous student strategy use. Secondly, the pedagogical priorities for pronunciation improvement in the short and long-term, for both segmental and suprasegmental features, are identified. The third chapter offers suggestions for teachers on how to use these goals and priorities within a course, as well as discussing classroom environments conducive for pronunciation improvement. This report makes a case for the importance of student empowerment through the utilization of autonomous learning strategies, allowing students to take control over their individual language acquisition process.

Despite the growing interest in healing gardens in hospitals which began in the 1990’s, there has been a major lack of a generalized measure to assess perceptions of specific design elements in healing gardens. Although much speculation exists that a well-designed healing garden may have the ability to bring about positive emotional and behavioral outcomes, few studies have empirically addressed these outcomes. The current study applies recommendations for key healing garden design elements derived from numerous published sources to the development and testing of an instrument which assesses individuals’ perceptions of key healing garden design elements. Further, based on Roger Ulrich’s (1999) Theory of Supportive Gardens, this study establishes a conceptual model that explains the influences that garden visitors’ perceptions of key healing garden design elements have on their satisfaction with the garden, which in turn leads to satisfaction with the hospital and positive behavioral intentions toward the healing garden as well as the hospital. This study empirically tests this model using data collected from a survey with a sample of hospital visitors (i.e., family and friends of patients) and employees recruited from two hospitals in Alabama. Results reveal that hospital visitors’ perceptions of healing garden design consist of four factors: (a) Privacy, Social Support, and Control; (b) Natural Distractions; (c) Movement and Exercise; and (d) Accessibility. Further, visitors’ data supported the conceptual model by demonstrating a significant positive influence of perceived healing garden design, particularly privacy, social support, and control, on hospital visitors’ satisfaction with the healing garden, which in turn positively influenced their satisfaction with the hospital and intentions to revisit and recommend the healing garden and the hospital. Due to the small sample size which weakened the statistical power, the same relationships were not found significant among hospital employees. This study provides key contributions to the literature through the development and testing of a scale which assesses individuals’ perceptions of key healing garden design elements. This study also offers applicable information to healing garden designers by investigating the relative importance of various design elements in healing gardens. Additionally, the study addresses the process by which consumers experience emotional and behavioral responses to the healing garden and the hospital as a whole. The findings of this study provide further support for Roger Ulrich’s (1999) Theory of Supportive Gardens and highlight the importance of the inclusion of healing gardens in hospitals.

The initiation of lactation involves an increased flow of Ca into mammary secretions, which leads to responses of serum concentrations of Ca and parathyroid hormone (PTH) that may be influenced by dietary Ca. Eight light mares from Farm A and eight Thoroughbred mares from Farm B were bled and milked 10 d pre-foaling, and eight mares (four from each farm) were bled and milked 5 d post-foaling. Milk Ca was measured by two commercial tests, one for [Ca + Mg] and the other [Ca]. Serum PTH and total Ca were measured in 16 mares, and ionized Ca in four mares. Parturition was induced in all mares with fenoprostalene on Farm A, and in four mares with oxytocin on Farm B; no significant difference was found between induction methods or between induced and spontaneous foaling mares. Dietary Ca was 34% DM on Farm A and .79% on Farm B. Mean serum total Ca concentrations decreased from 12.5 mg/dl to a nadir of 11 mg/dl on d 2 post-partum, and mean PTH increased from 46 pg/ml to a peak of 186 pg/ml on d 2 post-partum. Mean serum PTH concentrations were lower (P = .03) and total Ca concentrations were higher (P = -01) on Farm B in comparison to Farm A, probably reflecting the difference in Ca intake. The nadir in mean ionized Ca and total Ca concentrations was reached on d 2 post-partum, 1 day later than has been observed previously in the dairy cow. Milk Ca concentrations increased from 50 ppm 7 d pre-foaling to 350 ppm on the day of foaling, with no difference between farms. The [Ca + Mg] test reached a critical level of 200 ppm 4.5 d pre-foaling, the [Ca] test 2 d pre-foaling. The [Ca + Mg] and [Ca] tests reached 250 ppm 2.5 and 1 d pre-partum, respectively. In short, serum Ca and PTH concentrations showed periparturient changes which reflected dietary Ca pre-partum. Foaling date was more closely associated with milk [Ca] than with [Ca + Mg] and by a critical level of 250 ppm than by 200 ppm.