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This study examined the retention policies, practices, and interventions in school districts in 4 counties in Southern California. It was based on a study conducted by Olds (2008). A content analysis of retention policies and practices in 9 elementary (K-6) districts found that districts used the state's Pupil Promotion and Retention regulations as a basis for their school board promotion and retention policies, which generally included the major components found in the education code: grade levels, school personnel, assessments, and the process required for retention. Eleven teachers with experience in kindergarten through sixth grade participated in a 3-pronged qualitative investigation to answer the research questions: How are students identified for possible retention (criteria used) and how does the approach used relate to retention guidelines in the state education code; what is the nature of interventions provided for students before retention or during the retention year; and what are teachers' perspectives and perceptions regarding the most effective ways to address the needs of students who have been retained or are being considered for retention? An Interview Protocol, Sentence Completion Activity, and Self-Ranking Scale were used to gather and triangulate the data. Four themes emerged: (a) Comprehensive data based on the state education code are collected before a group decision is made, (b) Interventions are distinguished by their purpose and their implementation, (c) Interventions allow for individualized attention and retention allows for more time for social and academic development, and (d) Ineffective or inappropriate interventions and retention can lead to negative affective and academic effects. Interventions provided by districts demonstrated an array of program structures: in-class, out-of-class, before- and after-school, and summer school. Teachers considered individualized differentiated instruction provided in small groups or with one-to-one tutoring as the most effective interventions. Conversely, whole group with non-differentiated instruction was considered least effective. Study participants were mixed in their views regarding retention. Some believed retention was helpful if implemented appropriately and with the proper interventions, while others did not consider retention to be an effective practice. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This dissertation describes the development of a state-of-the-art immersive media environment and its potential to motivate high school youth with autism to vocally express themselves. Due to the limited availability of media environments in public education settings, studies on the use of such systems in special education contexts are rare. A study called "Sea of Signs" utilized the Situated Multimodal Art Learning Lab (SMALLab), to present a custom-designed conversational scenario for pairs of youth with autism. Heuristics for building the scenario were developed following a 4-year design-based research approach that fosters social interaction, communication, and self-expression through embodied design. "Sea of Signs" implemented these heuristics through an immersive experience, supported by spatial and audio-visual feedback that helped clarify and reinforce students' vocal expressions within a partner-based conversational framework. A multiple-baseline design across participants was used to determine the extent to which individuals exhibited observable change as a result of the activity in SMALLab. Teacher interviews were conducted prior to the experimental phase to identify each student's pattern of social interaction, communication, and problem-solving strategies in the classroom. Ethnographic methods and video coding were used throughout the experimental phase to assess whether there were changes in (a) speech duration per session and per turn, (b) turn-taking patterns, and (c) teacher prompting per session. In addition, teacher interviews were conducted daily after every SMALLab session to further triangulate the nature of behaviors observed in each session. Final teacher interviews were conducted after the experimental phase to collect data on possible transfer of behavioral improvements into students' classroom lives beyond SMALLab. Results from this study suggest that the activity successfully increased independently generated speech in some students, while increasing a focus on seeking out social partners in others. Furthermore, the activity indicated a number of future directions in research on the nature of voice and discourse, rooted in the use of aesthetics and phenomenology, to augment, extend, and encourage developments in directed communication skills for youth with autism. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]