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Background: Alcohol-related sexual assault is a pressing health concern on U.S. college campuses. The unrelenting prevalence of campus sexual assault has led to a greater focus on how to empower college women to resist unwanted sexual advances within alcohol-infused contexts. Alcohol-aggression expectancies have emerged as one potential barrier to women's utilization of sexual refusal strategies. The present study sought to test this hypothesized barrier using a vignette-based experimental design. Specifically, the proposed model examined the relationships between perceived perpetrator intoxication level, expectations of perpetrator reaction to sexual refusal, and willingness to refuse unwanted sexual advances. The moderating effects of prior sexual assault history and alcohol-aggression expectancies were also evaluated within this model. It was hypothesized that (1) anticipated negative partner reaction to sexual refusal would mediate the effect of perceived perpetrator intoxication on sexual refusal assertiveness, (2) sexual assault history would moderate both paths of the proposed mediation, and (3) alcohol-aggression expectancies would moderate the effect of sexual assault history on path a. Methods: Formative research with 59 college women was conducted to develop experimental vignettes for this study. In the within-subjects experimental study, 199 college women viewed five vignettes depicting either an intoxicated or sober perpetrator and responded to survey items corresponding to each construct of the proposed model. Results: Seventy percent of participants reported a history of unwanted sexual contact and 60% reported a history of attempted or completed rape. Perceived Partner Intoxication had a significant effect on Anticipated Negative Partner Reaction, such that those who perceived the male perpetrator as more intoxicated reported greater anticipation that he would respond negatively to sexual refusal. Anticipated Negative Partner Reaction did not mediate the relationship between Perceived Partner Intoxication and Sexual Refusal Assertiveness. No moderating effects of Sexual Assault History or Alcohol-Aggression Expectancies were observed. Conclusion: While the proposed conceptual model of sexual assertiveness was unsupported, rates of sexual assault were staggering in this sample, emphasizing the need for continued research on how to empower college women within the current college climate. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The purpose of this qualitative case study was to examine student perceptions about Title IX prevention and protection programs designed to prevent and protect students from on-campus sexual assault, sexual violence, and rape. The problem addressed students' lack of knowledge about Title IX programs and their vulnerability to sexual assaults, sexual violence, and rape due to their unfamiliarity with Title IX programs. The dilemma is framed by several theoretical frameworks. The first is Critical Social Science Theory. It critiques basic social structure and implies that understanding how one is oppressed enables the victim to change the oppressive forces. The second is Feminist Theory. It challenges the prevailing gender assumptions of society, creating more liberating ways for men and women to exist with equity and equality. The final theoretical framework, Patriarchy Theory, places value on the experiences and interest of men, while devaluing the interest, values, and experiences of women. Three research questions guided this study. Results from research question one identified students lacked clarity about Title IX prevention programs, did not know who their Title IX Coordinator was, did not feel empowered to intervene if they witnessed an ongoing sexual assault, and students thought safety programs were Title IX programs. Results from research question two illustrated concerns about not feeling protected on-campus from sexual assaults such as inadequate campus lighting at night, particularly in the parking garages, and inoperable Emergency Towers. Students felt that campus leadership also lacked knowledge of Title IX programs. Research question three results revealed that female students felt too vulnerable to report a sexual assault to administrators. Students expressed strong mistrust of their campus leadership. The study's results contribute to the field of education in both research and practice by identifying the communication gaps between students and administrators that prevent more impactful on-campus Title IX programs. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Sexual violence on college campuses is a significant concern, with research indicating that approximately one-third of female students and one-tenth of male students may experience it during their college years. The risk is higher for college women nationwide, and the impact on physical and mental health is substantial. Studies often highlight high-risk groups, such as collegiate athletes, whose culture may contribute to risk factors like hypermasculinity and supportive rape myth attitudes. Research shows that male athletes exhibit higher rates of sexually violent behaviors compared to non-athletes, emphasizing the need for targeted prevention training for this specific population. The concern over sexual violence on campuses is not just a national problem, it is a problem on this NCAA Division II southern institution. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of bystander intervention training when given by a peer versus given by a staff member to be able to provide the most effective training possible to student-athletes. This quantitative study assessed the effectiveness of bystander intervention training delivered by peers versus staff members. The student-athlete participants completed surveys before and after the training to assess changes in intentions related to bystander intervention and the relatability of facilitators. Three key takeaways include participants in both the staff- and peer-led groups started with similar baseline knowledge, a notable positive shift occurred during the training, and there was no statistically significant difference in perceptions of the facilitator between groups. The study emphasized the need for ongoing evaluation and regular training redesign to sustain its impact. The results offer insights for this NCAA Division II southern institution, which will guide future training approaches. Future research should focus on a variety of facilitators to determine if the results are replicated. This document concludes with stakeholder insights, plans for disseminating the research results, and the study's limitations. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Sexual assault has significant physical and psychological impacts on victims but remains underreported, especially in higher learning institutions. The primary aim of this study was to examine college and university students' knowledge and attitudes towards sexual assault disclosure protocols and procedures in the institutions. Students' knowledge and perception of such policies and guidelines can determine their sexual assault reporting behaviors. However, students' demographic factors such as socialization, knowledge levels, and cultural backgrounds may influence their perceptions of sexual assault reporting behaviors. In this study, students' involvement in extracurricular activities and their enrollment modes were essential variables that influence attitudes towards the existing institutional policies. The first hypothesis for the study stated that students active in extracurricular activities on campus are likely to score higher when assessed on their knowledge of their campus sexual assault policy and procedure than students who are not engaged and active, while the second hypothesis stated that students with fewer completed academic credits have a positive attitude toward campus sexual assault policy and procedure compared to students with more completed academic credits. Data was analyzed using SPSS software to conduct statistical analysis. The results showed no relationship between academic credits and student perception and attitude toward campus sexual assault policy and procedure. However, the respondents who participated in extracurricular activities were more familiar with sexual assault policies and procedures. Moreover, male respondents scored higher in supporting initiatives by the campus administration in facilitating sexual assault reporting than those from other gender orientations. One of the recommendations included offering more training on sexual assault policies to part-time students in colleges and universities. Future research should focus on the effectiveness of providing helpful information to learners. In addition, other scholars should focus on how gender and age influence the under-reporting of rape and sexual assault cases within higher learning institutions. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Existing literature suggests that the pervasive issue of institutional betrayal--the failure to prevent sexual assault or respond supportively when it occurs that exacerbates distressing mental health symptoms--is a factor in one's ability to cope with the trauma of the assault. This study investigated female undergraduate students' experiences of institutional betrayal following a sexual assault to understand how their coping style and psychological wellbeing were affected by their higher educational institution (HEI)'s inability to respond appropriately to their report. A total of 108 participants (N = 108) responded to an online anonymous survey where they reported their depression, anxiety, stress, PTSD symptoms, and perceptions of institutional betrayal. Institutional betrayal was significantly correlated with maladaptive coping styles, avoidant coping styles, PTSD symptoms, depression, anxiety, and stress. Additionally, avoidant coping styles were significantly correlated with PTSD symptoms and negative emotional symptoms. Maladaptive coping styles were also significantly correlated with PTSD symptoms and negative emotional symptoms. No significant correlations were found with adaptive coping styles. Furthermore, institutional betrayal partially mediated the relationships between maladaptive and avoidant coping styles and psychological wellbeing, accounting for 68% and 69% of the variance, respectively. These results suggest that institutional betrayal by HEIs exacerbates harm to survivors. Further research is recommended to include non-female perspectives, a broader age range, and additional factors affecting the campus climate to better understand institutional betrayal, heal those affected by sexual and betrayal trauma, and move towards creating safer campuses. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Sexual assault against women is a pervasive problem on college campuses in the United States (Canan, Jozkowski, & Crawford, 2018). Interventions to prevent sexual violence have been developed to target men. However, they generally lack a specific guiding theory and show mixed results (Caver, 2013). Factors such as adherence to traditional masculine norms (Locke, 2002), rape myth acceptance (RMA) (Hermann et al., 2012), ethnic-racial identity (ERI) (Suarez & Gadalla, 2010), expectations related to alcohol use (Abbey et al., 2001), and sexual self-regulation (Dickie, 1998) contribute to sexual violence. Still, the relationship between these factors is unclear. The current study examined these factors in a sample of 185 college men. Participants completed a brief demographics questionnaire, followed by surveys measuring the five constructs. MANOVA's were utilized to examine the mean score differences. Men who highly endorsed traditional masculine norms accepted rape myths at a significantly higher rate than participants who did not endorse these norms. There was a significant difference in sexual self-regulation abilities between men who endorsed traditional masculine norms at a high level and those who endorsed them at a medium level. No significant relationship was found between ethnic and racial identity and RMA. Finally, significant differences were found in RMA for individuals who endorsed sexual expectations related to alcohol use, in that those who held these expectations accepted rape myths at a higher level than those who did not. The findings will serve to further the understanding of sexual violence prevention on college campuses in the United States. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Sexual assault on college campuses was the public health and safety problem addressed in this study which sought to determine if intervention and prevention program type affected rates of sexual assault on Tier I and Tier II universities in Texas. Female students, educated on the dangers of being victim to the criminality of sexual assault, were unaware of the increased danger they faced on campus as women. Intervention and prevention offered a way to increase safety for students. Federal and state laws produced changes in college administrative sexual assault response requirements. This study examined the role of sexual assault prevention and intervention programs in Texas Tier I and Tier II universities using a quantitative approach and ex-post facto design to determine whether any differences existed after postsecondary institution sexual assault rates were reported. There were statistically significant differences in the mean number of sexual assaults at Tier I and Tier II universities from 2010-2014; from 2010 to 2019; from 2014 to 2016, and from 2014 to 2019. Statistically significant differences were found in the mean number of reported rapes between traditional and non-traditional interventions at Tier II universities. Additionally, results indicated that there were significant differences between reported mean rapes for Tier I and Tier II public universities. Recommendations for Texas colleges and universities are to extend federal and state mandates, provide extensive and prolonged engagement for both traditional and non-traditional interventions, and create more transparency between campus and local police in incidents of sexual assaults on campus. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Educator sexual misconduct continues to present a problem in U.S. K-12 schools. As mandatory reporters, K-12 educators must report any suspicion of educator sexual misconduct, but despite state and federal laws regarding reporting, educator sexual misconduct often goes unreported. The purpose of this exploratory phenomenological study was to learn more about how U.S. K-12 educators perceive underreporting of educator sexual misconduct. The integrated change model served as this study's conceptual framework. Semistructured interviews were conducted to collect data from eight educators in K-12 schools in two school districts in North Carolina. Coding analysis was used to identify themes. Five themes related to reporting barriers to educator sexual misconduct emerged: problematic training, inconsistent training across schools, lack of rapport with supervisors, fear of repercussions for reporting, and lack of accountability and consequences for not reporting. Three themes related to overcoming those barriers to reporting emerged: Title 9 training, professional conduct, and accountability for not reporting. These findings could be used for positive social change to decrease barriers to reporting, improve mandatory reporting and sexual harassment training, and keep students safe from harm. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

While anyone can be a victim of sexual violence, college-aged females between the ages of 18 and 21 are more likely to be victimized than any other group. Sexual violence continues to be a barrier to education, and colleges/universities make it challenging for students to report on campus. The purpose of this study is to explore the factors, intervention/prevention strategies, and policies/procedures used to address sexual violence on a university campus. The framework used was the ecological model, which focuses on factors and influences within the environment that affected individual behavior. The research questions focused on participants describing their experiences of how campus sexual violence incidences were addressed, including the university's sexual assault response system and best practices. The research design was a qualitative instrumental case study. The method was in depth individual interviews, and the data analysis included content analysis, coding and categorizing data from the interview transcripts, observation notes, and other materials to increase the understanding of the phenomenon. There were four key findings, which included (a) sexual violence was still a concern on this campus, (b) barriers to reporting and accessing services, (c) online programs currently required by the university and the state were inadequate, and (d) Title IX policies and procedures were unclear for students, faculty, or staff. Recommendations included addressing barriers to reporting and accessing services, providing adequate educational programs, and providing clarification on Title IX for students, faculty, and staff. This study provides data that may lead to changes in legislation, policies, and procedures in combating sexual violence on this college campus. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Background: College sexual violence (CSV) victimization is associated with mental health issues with more recent research showing that victimization also has a negative impact on academic outcomes. While many universities offer a wide range of both advocacy and supportive services for survivors that can help address the negative impacts of CSV, many students still report not knowing about or feeling capable of accessing them, and research shows that students with marginalized and intersecting marginalized identities utilize these resources at even lower rates. This raises important questions about whether students feel that their institution is supportive of CSV survivors, and particularly, whether those with historically and currently minoritized identities perceive the institution as place where survivors who disclose are supported, a piece often missing in studies of CSV. This dissertation seeks to better understand students' perceptions of support for CSV disclosures from both their peers and the institution, and how social reactions to disclosures ultimately impact the experience of CSV survivors' depression and, in turn, academic outcomes. Research Aims: Three primary research aims comprise this dissertation. Research Aim 1 was to examine perceptions of the university's response to sexual violence disclosures among all students in the sample in an effort to more broadly understand disclosure experiences. Research Aim 2 was to confirm the negative impact that CSV has on a measure of academic outcomes among all students in the sample. Research Aim 3 was to conduct a deeper dive into variations in academic outcomes based upon types of social reactions received among CSV survivors in the sample. Design and Analyses: Data for all three research aims are from a larger campus climate survey that was administered in Fall 2020 on two campuses. For the first Research Aim, a two-step analytic strategy was utilized that included One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) tests followed by post-hoc tests (Tukey HSD) to determine group differences and a series of linear regression analyses. Research Aim 2 was examined by estimating ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models. Lastly, the third Research Aim was tested using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) processes with observed variables. Results: Analyses for Research Aim I show significant main effects for gender identity, F(2, 1089) = 5.49, p < 0.01, on perception of the university's response to sexual violence with cismen (M = 4.17, SD = 0.77) perceiving the university as more responsive compared to students with a marginalized gender (M = 3.73, SD = 0.96), p < 0.01 and ciswomen (M = 4.07, SD = 0.70) perceiving the university as more responsive compared to students with a marginalized gender identity, p < 0.05. Results from the regression analyses also found that sexual violence survivors, compared to non-survivors, and students who have experienced some form of identity-based discrimination, compared to students who did not experience some form of identity-based discrimination on campus, perceive the university as less responsive to sexual violence disclosures ([beta] = -0.28, p < 0.001). Analyses for Research Aim 2 show that sexual violence victimization since coming to campus remains significant in its association with academic disengagement at p < 0.001. Lastly, analyses for Research Aim 3 shows that turning against social reactions, a sub-type of negative social reactions, has a relatively strong total effect on depression and positively predicts academic disengagement behaviors indirectly through its relationship with the hypothesized mediating variable of depression. Conclusions: The current study builds upon existing research in the area of CSV in order to gain a more nuanced understanding of the impact of social reactions on collegiate survivors' healing trajectories, specifically exploring survivors' academic outcomes. Additionally, the study examined students' perceptions of the university's response to CSV disclosures in order to better understand the larger climate which may influence students' subsequent decisions to disclose. Overall, the study found that negative social reactions to disclosures of sexual violence impact academic disengagement through the hypothesized mediating variable depression. This finding aligns with the broader social reactions literature which finds that negative social reactions are harmful and distressing to survivors. Findings support the need to improve both informal and formal support systems' response to survivors on campus in order to promote healing and improve survivors' academic performance. Additionally, the findings from the current study highlight the negative impact that CSV and identity-based discrimination has on students' perceptions of the university's response to sexual violence disclosures. It is essential to understand how identity-based harm experienced on campus impacts students' perceptions of the university's response and potential ways for the university to improve students' perceptions in order to increase service utilization and referral to resources among students on campus. Taken together, findings support the need for sexual violence advocacy efforts on campus that directly address the academic needs of collegiate survivors as well as are rooted in empowerment theory. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Sexual assault on college campuses is a significant concern and deemed a public health problem. Research suggested that certain groups, such as male college student athletes, may be the main offenders and contributors to the problem. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between acceptance of specific rape myths and attitudes toward bystander intervention in specific situations among Division III athletes and nonathletes on a college campus. The theory of planned behavior and feminist theory served as the foundation for this quantitative study. An archival dataset was analyzed that included undergraduate students (N = 313) from a Division III institution. Results from hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed that rape myth acceptance and athlete status significantly predicted attitudes toward bystander intervention. Higher endorsement of rape myths predicted more negative attitude toward bystander intervention and athletes had more negative attitudes toward bystander intervention than nonathletes. The findings from this study may lead to positive social change by providing college/university administrators and educators insight into the factors that can influence a college student's decision to intervene as a bystander and in turn help enhance sexual violence education and prevention programs. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Harassment and Sexual Assault are both offenses and crimes that can be classified as domestic violence as well. The responses within a university to allegations of domestic violence are different from investigations by sworn law enforcement. There is an obligation to investigate and charge by law enforcement when certain incidents of domestic violence require a mandatory arrest or there is the discretionary ability to charge an actor. With higher education, there is no mandatory obligation to notify law enforcement of incidents that occur and therefore actors may never be charged or held accountable. This action-research study assessed the impact of partnerships between law enforcement and higher education in response to domestic violence on campus and also elaborated on the benefits of law enforcement and a university campus. The findings of this research study can assist higher education institutions on how to proactively educate students and faculty regarding domestic violence incidents on campus and during a student's collegiate career while allowing multiple resources to be afforded to victims. The purpose of this study was to analyze the response by local law enforcement agencies and higher education institutions to campus domestic violence while exploring possible impacts that enhanced partnerships will have on community resiliency. There is a need for Higher Education Professionals and Law Enforcement Officers to understand each other's' roles when responding to domestic violence incidents on campus. Building this partnership can be accomplished through designated liaison assignments, relationship-building, and professional development. The results of this study revealed the lack of knowledge within law enforcement with understanding Title IX, the Clery Act, and the role of Higher Education Professionals when investigating alleged acts of domestic violence. Equally, Higher Education Professionals are unaware of the mandatory investigating and arresting requirements incumbent upon law enforcement in the same domestic violence situations. Both entities would benefit from basic knowledge and understanding of the others' roles when responding to these incidents. The student body also would feel more comfortable seeking out additional resources via law enforcement if they interacted with them before needing help. A vital follow-up of research to gauge student and higher education professionals' attitudes on the benefits of collaborative relationships with law enforcement is necessary. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Sexual violence is an issue every college in America must work to prevent. Critical race scholars such as Derrick Bell may argue sexual violence can be viewed through a lens of race because racism is ordinary and not aberrational (Crewe, 2021). Historical context can affect the perceptions racialized groups or populations have when discussing sexual violence, like Black students for example. Historically, Black men have been socially connected to hypersexuality and criminality (Baker, 1998). This may affect how Black men view peers accused of sexual violence. Black women, however, have a history of being met with skepticism or disbelief when they disclose experiencing sexual violence (Brubaker & Mancini, 2017). Studies show the majority of rapes are intra-racial (Koch, 1995; Wheeler & George, 2001). Thus, how sexual violence impacts Black communities is important to explore. This study examines the following questions: (1) How do Black men perceive rape allegations made by Black women against Black men? (2) What impacts those perceptions? To answer both questions, I conducted a study where participants were presented with a hypothetical scenario. The scenario contained a hypothetical intra-racial occurrence of sexual violence in which a Black woman alleged a Black man assaulted her. Using inductive coding, I analyzed the interview findings using intersectionality and cultural betrayal trauma theory (CBTT). In analyzing the findings of 14 interviews conducted, I looked for perceptions Black male participants had of sexual assault allegations made against Black men made by Black women. Fourteen participants, who were enrolled in college at the undergraduate level at a predominantly white institution (PWI) in California, were involved in this study. Data was collected via virtual semi-structured one-on-one interviews. Findings revealed Black men had a myriad of perceptions about intra-racial sexual violence on Black communities. They were supportive of the survivor in the hypothetical scenario and identified key elements of the survivor's dismissal as well as barriers to her disclosure of the assault. Participants also believed their Black male peers would have mixed reactions to the scenario, with some supporting and affirming the survivor, and others dismissing and invalidating the survivor's experience. Participants noted the differences in such responses to scenarios included upbringing, media influences, reputation, lack of institutional trust, and other factors. Practical suggestions included an institutional change within the university setting to acknowledge elements of consent, coercion, victim-blaming, and other elements of rape culture outside of explicit conversations about sexual violence. This included revising particular Title IX orientations, creating courses to highlight these elements within their curricula, hosting culturally relevant workshops for mandated reporters, as well as Title IX officers and university police departments specifically, as well as implementing taskforces to strategically implement these suggestions. Suggestions also included incorporating newsletters to outline how sexual violence impacts different minoritized groups and incorporating more minoritized group resources into national sexual violence college prevention reports. Some also suggested incorporating restorative justice models within colleges & universities for students to establish systems of pressure to hold institutions accountable for making requisite changes to address sexual violence concerns on campus. Suggestions for future research include exploring the relationships between Black men and institutional agents (i.e., Title IX officers and police officers), Black men's perceptions of intra-racial sexual violence allegations at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs), Black men's perceptions of intra-racial sexual violence allegations at higher education institutions across the United States beyond just the West Coast, Black women's perceptions of intra-racial sexual violence, as well as perceptions of intra-racial sexual violence experienced in other racial/cultural groups. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The prevalence of sexual violence victimization on college campuses has varied by gender, sexual orientation, and ethnicity (Conley et al., 2017). Research has shown that sexual minorities have higher incidences of campus sexual violence compared to heterosexual students (Coulter et al., 2017). Black women reported higher incidences of campus sexual violence compared to Asian students, who reported lower incidents of sexual violence on campus (Coulter et al., 2017). To address campus sexual assault, campuses have worked to increase students' understanding of sexual consent (Aosved & Long, 2006), bystander interventions (Banyard et al., 2007), understandings of campus policies on sexual violence (Toews et al., 2020), and readiness to help prevent campus sexual violence (Banyard et al., 2014). However, it is not yet known whether ethnicity, sexual minority identities, and history of sexual violence may influence student engagement in these known methods of preventing campus sexual violence. The current study aimed to determine whether perceptions of sexual harassment on campus, personal experiences of sexual assault, and rape myth acceptance influence students' bystander intervention, understandings of campus sexual violence policy, and readiness to help among sexual and ethnic minority students. Secondary data analysis was conducted from San Diego State University survey of campus climate on sexual violence. The findings of this study showed significant differences in the extent of personal experiences of sexual violence (Latinx and Asian students reporting fewer incidents of sexual assault than White students) and its association with lower awareness of the problem of campus sexual violence, feelings of responsibility to prevent campus sexual violence, and bystander interventions. This study highlighted significant differences in the extent of personal experiences of campus sexual violence and association with engagement in campus sexual violence especially among ethnic and sexual minority students. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The purpose of this quantitative study was to examine college cis-women's experiences with gender microaggressions and perceptions of campus climate, institutional betrayal, and institutional courage, how those experiences and perceptions are related, and how each predicts college students' likelihood of reporting sexual assault to the University. College cis-women (n = 483; 84.3% White) at a private predominantly-White Catholic university in the northeastern United States completed a 153-item survey, the data from which was analyzed using descriptive statistics, "t" tests, Pearson correlations, and linear regressions. Gender microaggressions were found to be prevalent at the University, with perpetration by peers more common than perpetration by University employees. Undergraduate college women reported significantly higher rates of gender microaggressions by both peers and University employees and higher levels of institutional betrayal than graduate college women. Undergraduate and graduate women had similar perceptions of campus climate and levels of institutional courage. Gender microaggressions by both peers and University employees had a significant positive relationship with institutional betrayal, and peer and employee gender microaggressions both also had a significant negative relationship with campus climate. A significant weak positive relationship was found between institutional courage and gender microaggressions by peers only; no significant relationship was identified between institutional courage and gender microaggressions by University employees. Through a series of regression analyses, five elements of campus climate--school connectedness, perceptions of campus police, sexual harassment/sexual assault prevention and response, school sexual assault policy and resources, and treatment of sexual assault victims--were found to explain 41% of the variance in college women's likelihood of reporting sexual assault to the University. The primary overarching recommendation from this study is that universities conduct an annual campus climate survey with their entire student population that includes questions about sexual victimization across the entire continuum (gender microaggressions, sexual harassment, and sexual assault) and institutional betrayal to better understand and strategically address the specific needs of their students and campus community. In addition, recommendations for future action, directions for further research, and limitations of the study are shared. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This study investigated the perceptions and attitudes students have regarding their decision to participate or not as witnesses in a southwest United States private university gender-based violence adjudication process. The study also investigated whether there was a relationship between students' decisions to participate and their gender, age, grade point average (GPA), classification, on- or off-campus housing arrangements, athletic participation, or Greek affiliation. Using a multi-method research design, the researcher collected qualitative data pertaining to the perceptions and attitudes of students regarding their decision to participate and quantitative data pertaining to the relationship between participation and student demographics. The seven major themes the researcher identified from the survey responses of students who chose to participate as witnesses included: (a) "duty to inform," (b) "justice," (c) "support my friend," (d) "fear," (e) "seriousness and severity of the misconduct," (f) "Title IX system is biased," and (g) "if…I would not have participated…" The four major themes the researcher identified from the survey responses of students who chose not to participate as witnesses included: (a) "didn't know enough," (b) "didn't have time," (c) "emotional," and (d) "encouraged." The researcher used logistic regression and chi-square tests to investigate the relationship between participation and the variables of gender, age, ethnicity, grade point average (GPA), classification, on- or off-campus housing arrangements, athletic participation, and Greek affiliation. Witnesses and non-witnesses shared many factors that impacted their perceptions and attitudes regarding deciding whether to participate or not as witnesses in an adjudication process. Most of their perceptions and attitudes were connected to the information they believed they could contribute and whether the situation warranted them participating in an adjudication process. In terms of the relationship between the demographics and students' decisions to participate, there was no statistically significant relationship between gender, age, GPA, on- or off-campus housing arrangements, athletic participation, and Greek affiliation and students' decision to participate. However, the individual predictor of living on-or-off campus was statistically significant indicating those who live on campus are more likely to participate as witnesses than those who live off campus. Based on the study findings, it was recommended IHEs assess and address college students' acceptance of rape myths, educate students on their Title IX policy and adjudication process, and create and thoroughly explain a policy on retaliation. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Rape culture has roots in our gendered history of the United States which manifests itself on college campuses as well. Attending college has been found to be the riskiest time for women in terms of sexual assault, as up to 1 in 4 women may experience some type of sexual assault or attempt during their collegiate years. This study explored how one college campus, the University of Vermont (UVM), has organizational policies, procedures and values that are perceived to support rape culture on campus. Guided by critical feminist theory as its epistemological foundation, this qualitative study uses an applied thematic analysis to explore how organizational conditions at UVM help support a rape culture. Ten participants were recruited for the study via snowball sampling. Each participant was identified as current or former staff member, or student at UVM. Each was interviewed using semi-structured interviews. The interviews were analyzed using an applied thematic analysis. Six overarching themes were discovered in the data. Participants identified a series of student cultures like "alcohol abuse" and "a hookup culture" that together support risk taking and contribute to rape culture. Respondents noted a variety of organizational pressures, both external and internal, to the University that were intertwined with their descriptions of rape culture. Pressures from outside the organization tended to be regulative in nature and included specific references to federal or state law, or court actions. Organizational pressures from inside the organization were also regulative in nature, but typically internal policies, procedures and practices were identified. For example, at UVM there are a variety of departments whose policies and procedures are specifically designed to address sexually based violence on campus. These include offices like the Police or the Center for Student Conduct. Interviewees spoke at length about how policies and procedures designed to increase safety and responsibility, can actually contribute to perceived support for rape cultures on campus. Examples include safeguards around alcohol consumption on campus, lengthy Title IX adjudication processes when assaults occur, public image protection, and institutional silencing of victims. Taken together these findings describe a variety of organizational conditions that work to support and perpetuate rape culture, at the same time concerted efforts are made to reduce the likelihood of harm and to promote safety on college campuses. Findings from this study can be used by UVM and other higher education organizations to address organizational structures, actions and policies that have contributed to rape culture. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The most common point of intervention within campus sexual assault programming is that of combatting frequently held myths about rape. These rape myths are often assessed through self-report scales and are thus subjected to concerns of social-desirability and blind-spot bias. Research suggests individuals misperceive the beliefs of others, resulting in the perpetuation of a false norm. Further, research on perceived norms of sexually aggressive behavior is limited and focuses on male perceptions. This study examines the potential inter and intra-gender misperceptions of rape myths among male and female undergraduates, using archival data from a campus climate survey distributed to IUP students in the spring semester of 2018. Participants completed self-report rape myth items (RMS) and then responded to the same items as they perceive their male peers (RMM) and female peers (RMF) would respond. A factor analysis was conducted to identify components within the rape myth items, and mean comparisons examined differences between RMS, RMM and RMF statements. Results indicated that males had higher RMS scores compared to females. Additionally, participants endorsed higher rape myth perceptions of males than for females or for themselves. Female participants also endorsed higher rape myth perceptions of other females compared to themselves, but no difference was found in male self-reported rape myth endorsement compared to their perception of female endorsement. Overall, results suggested males endorsed more rape myths than females and that people tended to endorse fewer rape myths than they presumed other people of their gender would. Both males and females also appeared to perceive men as likely to endorse more rape myths than women. Exploratory analysis examined broader trends of rape myth norms among particular campus groups, and future directions are discussed. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Heteronormativity posits the superiority of heterosexuality and heterosexually-based norms over all other forms of sexual or gender expression, and heteronormative beliefs have been shown to affect how individuals view sexuality and gender. The concept of gender transition inherently goes against the ideals of heteronormativity. The current study investigated the relationship of heteronormative beliefs with placement of blame, labeling of the scenario, and social impressions of transgender versus cisgender victims of sexual assault among a non-clinical, college student sample (N = 116). An experimental and correlational design was used to compare responses from participants between two randomized groups: individuals who received a description of sexual assault with a transgender victim and individuals who received a description of sexual assault with a cisgender victim. The one hypothesis overwhelmingly supported by the results was that participant heteronormativity was a significant predictor of how the participant viewed the victim in terms of blame and social perception. Persons with lower levels of heteronormativity were less likely to blame the victim and more likely to view the victim as likable and well adjusted. There was no significant relationship between type of scenario (transgender or cisgender victim) or the interaction of heteronormativity by type of scenario on blame, labeling, or social perceptions. Suggestions for lessening the rigidity of societal heteronormativity are proposed. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

There has been a growing body of research on best approaches to reduce college men's sexual assault perpetration. While some interventions have successfully decreased perpetrator behavior, very few have accounted for college men's pre-intervention likelihood of offending (i.e., risk status). Considering the difficulties in changing high-risk men's sexual behavior, new prevention strategies are needed. The current study implemented an experimental manipulation informed by Deviance Regulation Theory (DRT), which postulates that people are strongly influenced by the potential consequences of deviating from group norms. Furthermore, our DRT-informed experimental manipulation tested whether sexual aggression could be reduced among men across different levels of perpetration risk. Men's risk status was operationalized by how much they perceived their peers to endorse norms that condone sexual assault (e.g., rape myth acceptance). 551 college men were recruited from an online crowdsourcing site and randomized to receive messages related to: a) positive characteristics of non-sexual aggressors, b) negative characteristics of sexual aggressors, or c) characteristics of homework completers (control condition). After they received one of these messages, participants interacted with a fictitious female participant to complete an online media task. During this task, they learned their partner had a strong dislike of sexually explicit media and were given the option to send up to 120 seconds worth of either a sexually explicit or nonsexual film clip. Sexually aggressive behavior was operationally defined as the duration that participants sent the sexual video. The main hypothesis was that there would be an interaction between message framing and peer norms condoning assault. Moreover, it was predicted that positively framed messages (compared to control) would reduce sexual aggression among men with stronger peer endorsement of these norms, while negatively framed messages (compared to control) would reduce sexual aggression among men with weaker peer endorsement of these norms. This hypothesis was not supported, as there was no interaction between message framing and peer norms condoning assault. However, there was a significant main effect of frame condition, such that across peer norm status, participants receiving positive messages demonstrated reductions in sexually aggressive behavior. Implications for sexual assault prevention programs are discussed, including the utility of strength-based approaches to promote prosocial behavior and deter college men from perpetration. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Sexual assault among college students is a prevalent occurrence. Researchers found sexual assault on college campuses have been present for decades. Six percent of males have been found to experience a sexual assault during college enrollment while the incidence increases to 19%-26% for females. Studies continue to report sexual assault is a recurring event for college students. Despite this, previous researchers indicated report rates and seeking services/help after a college student experiences a sexual assault is low. There is an abundance of research on sexual assault prevalence, report rates, and help-seeking, however, there is a dearth of research to help us understand why report rates and utilization of support services remain low. Literature review on these topics revealed that extant studies have examined sexually assaulted college student survivors' reasoning for not reporting or using college resources but did not have a focus on interpersonal factors. The present study explored interpersonal factors of Perceived Peer Rape Myth Acceptance (PPRMA), Susceptibility to Peer Influence (SPI), and Perception of Social Support (PSS) to provide insight into ways of helping to increase report rates and service-seeking behavior which may prevent development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or other mental health disorders/symptoms. Interpersonal factors and their interactions were analyzed to determine how they correlated with formal reporting and utilization of college resources. Participants completed a survey to measure their levels of the three interpersonal scales and their likeliness of reporting and using available resources after reading sexual assault scenarios. Results of the study were mixed. Implications were provided to help improvement of report rates and utilization of campus resources. Recommendations for future research were also discussed. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This study sought to understand the experience of college survivors of sexual assault during the 'me too.' movement through the use of phenomenological qualitative interviews. Sixteen women between the ages of 18 and 21 were interviewed using a constructivist approach with a critical-ideological framework. Participants' experiences were organized along the following major themes: (a) drawn to advocacy work and directly supporting survivors, (b) feelings of resilience and empowerment post assault, (c)'me too.' encourages reporting because of community, (d) 'me too.' brings awareness and conversations about sexual assault, (e) 'me too.' increases empathy for other survivors, (f) 'me too.' decreases stigma and helps name assault, (g) 'me too.' makes participants feel part of something bigger, and (h) trauma-related symptoms as a result of assault. Implications of these findings for practice, including recommendations for how mental health providers can better support sexual assault survivors, and future research are discussed. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Heavy and problematic drinking and sexual assault warrant significant concern on U.S. college campuses. Emerging evidence suggests that the risk for sexual victimization is amplified in the context of high-risk drinking behavior--and despite recent attention to sexual assault (e.g., MeToo Movement), rates of perpetration remain largely unchanged. In applying the bystander intervention framework, our understanding of the relation between key factors that may facilitate or prevent behavioral action, or when and how these factors are most salient, is limited. The present study examined whether bystander attitudes and bystander self-efficacy predict bystander intent to intervene while accounting for prior intervention training exposure and social desirability bias. Hypotheses were tested among college student drinking gamers, a group at particular risk for involvement in situations of sexual violence. Participants (N = 970) were traditional college-aged student drinking gamers recruited from three universities across the East and Southern United States. Analyses revealed that hypotheses were partially supported. The full model was significant, but bystander self-efficacy did not significantly moderate the relation between rape myth acceptance and bystander intent to intervene. Neither covariate (previous intervention exposure; social desirability) significantly contributed to the model. The discussion addresses implications for sexual assault prevention programs on college campuses and directions for future research. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This phenomenologically grounded qualitative study examined the lived experience of a student sexual violence advocate. Student advocates are utilized to operate crisis lines on college campuses for survivors of sexual assault, domestic abuse or other forms of sexual violence. This dissertation argues the lived experience of student sexual violence advocates is embodied, liminal and survivor focused. I interviewed 15 student advocates at a comprehensive university in the Midwest. Each advocate completed a minimum of two interactions with survivors. The lived experiences were portrayed as narratives, with six being deep narratives. Of the six narratives, three were from advocates interacting with strangers and three interacting with friends. After analysis, three essences were discovered. The lived experience of an advocate was embodied. The advocates had physical sensations matching the emotional stress of interacting with survivors. The lived experience was liminal. The advocates enter a space where they are not fully themselves but adopting a persona to provide better advocacy. Finally, the lived experience of an advocate was survivor focused. Throughout the entire interaction with survivors, the advocates continually expressed a desire to make the situation better for survivors. All actions from the advocate were designed to make the process better for the survivor. Areas for future research and implications for research and practice are identified. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This dissertation study is an examination of the relationship among rape culture, hookup culture, and social structure (i.e. regular and patterned forms of interaction over time which crystalize ideological constructs and channel behavior in specific ways). Since few efforts have examined female-on-female rape myth acceptance, I first explore collegiate perceptions of female-on-female rape to denote the influence of heteronormative discourse in guiding myths regarding survivor culpability, offender culpability, and situational contexts. Second, I develop, pilot, and validate a psychometric instrument to exclusively assess female-on-female rape myth acceptance. Finally, I comparatively assess the mediating influence of heteronormativity on the association between hookup culture endorsement and various forms of rape myth acceptance. This project contributes to the broader knowledge regarding rape culture by examining a historically neglected form of sexual violence, expanding validated psychometric instruments, and providing a comprehensive assessment of the interrelationships among rape culture, hookup culture, and social structures of heteronormativity. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The dialogue around violence against women has gone from a private matter to a national audience, primarily due to the sexual violence on college campuses and a recognition that it is part of a comprehensive system of power that affects all women. Researchers have shown that sexual violence is a significant issue on college campuses and there are various demonstrations of how colleges and universities have found ways to support individuals who report these interactions. Although women of all races, ethnicities, and cultures are affected by sexual violence, how it is experienced racially and culturally is unique. African American women's experiences are often missing from narratives because of the lack of understanding of intersectionality (Crenshaw, 1991) an acknowledgment of the historical and ongoing oppression that they experience in both their race and gender identity. This understanding is essential because several studies show that African American women are at high risk of experiencing sexual violence (Cantor, et al., 2015) and are the least likely to disclose, not only on college campuses but in general. Although universities are making great strides to improve their support for students experiencing sexual violence, the area that continues to lack research and data explores how different cultures, specifically the African American culture, respond to and address issues of sexual violence. Given the lack of empirical information, how can African American women be supported and educated around the topic of sexual violence? With the increased sexual violence occurring on a college campus and researchers demonstrating that African American women are at higher risk of sexual assault and are the least likely to disclose their sexual violation, it is crucial to dissect the African American female college students' perspective. This qualitative study engaged participants in a semi-structured interview to understand how African American undergraduate women perceive sexual violence and how history has influenced their perception. There were six major themes identified from the study that helped provide insight into the four research questions. The findings reveal that participants in this research understand and can apply a foundational definition of sexual violence, as demonstrated through the use of the vignette method. The notion that African American women's silence regarding sexual violence is due to a lack of awareness and education is unlikely; however, inappropriate sex education and sex-role socialization did influence disclosure patterns. The women in the study demonstrated that African American culture, history, and sex-role socialization influenced African American women's' perceptions of sexual violence, which resulted in barriers to help-seeking, and disclosure patterns about sexual violence. Findings revealed that there are complexities of African American women's perceptions of sexual violence. The lack of intersectionality within messaging and educational efforts is active contributions to their silence. There were three primary recommendations for practice and policy and two primary recommendations for theory and research. These recommendations focus on communicating care and concern, including African American women's voices in decision-making processes, and understanding and honoring African American women's experiences concerning sexual violence practices. The recommendations for practice and policy are: (a.) Institutional response and care, (b.) Education and awareness, and (c.) Adopting a social justice paradigm for sexual violence; future research recommendations are (a.) peer support and research and (b.) African American women's sexual self-acceptance. This study's findings provide insight into African American undergraduate women's perceptions of sexual violence and its influence on help-seeking and disclosure patterns. It also provided a focused lens on how intersectionality assists African American women in navigating environments that have not traditionally included them. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Sexual violence is a substantial problem on college campuses, particularly for undergraduate women who consistently report higher rates of nonconsensual sexual contact and sexual harassment during their college careers when compared to the general student population. A wide range of mental and behavioral health concerns are associated with sexual violence, such as depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, problem drinking, and missing school. A notable gap in the current campus sexual violence literature is its exclusion of chronic gender-based slights and invalidations known as gender microaggressions. Gender microaggressions are defined as intentional and unintentional slights, insults, and invalidations based on gender and most frequently targeting women. Presently, we lack basic information on the types, frequency, location, and impact of gender microaggressions on college campuses. This dearth of information leaves policy makers, administrators, educators, and researchers ill equipped to confront the causes of campus sexual violence. To address these gaps, this project asks the following research questions: (1) What are the types of gender microaggressions experienced by undergraduate women? (2) What are the past year frequencies of gender microaggressions, sexual harassment, and sexual assault for undergraduate women? (3) Where do gender microaggressions, sexual harassment, and sexual assault occur most frequently for undergraduate women? (4) What is the association between gender microaggressions and mental and behavioral health? Three studies were executed to answer these questions. First, a qualitative focus group study (N = 23) with UCB undergraduate women was conducted and directed content analysis employed to examine gender microaggressions themes. Second, a cross-sectional measure design and validation study (N = 220) was conducted, implementing exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and bivariate correlations to take the first steps in validating a gender microaggressions measure for undergraduate women. Third, a cross-sectional quantitative study (N = 220) was carried out to examine gender microaggressions' frequency, location, and correlates. This study began by employing chi-square tests and logistic regression to examine differences in microaggressions, sexual harassment, and sexual assault frequency by race and sexual orientation. The study then used descriptive percentages to explore locations where gender microaggressions, sexual harassment and sexual assault occur. Finally, multiple linear and logistic regressions were used to identify relationships between gender microaggressions and mental and behavioral health variables when controlling for sexual harassment and sexual assault. For Research Question 1, the qualitative study identified four undergraduate gender microaggressions themes: (1) Assumption of Traditional Gender Roles, (2) Presumed Incompetence (3) Environmental Invalidations, and (4) Sexual Objectification. Important developmentally and contextually specific sub-themes emerged, adding nuance and specificity to the taxonomy for undergraduate women. Three sub-themes were noted under Assumption of Traditional Gender Roles: (1) Caretaker/Nurturer, (2) Women Dominated Occupations, and (3) Weak/"Damsel in Distress." In addition, Male Dominance emerged as a sub-theme of Presumed Incompetence and University/Infrastructure Invalidations emerged as a sub-theme of Environmental Invalidations. The project employed a measure design process and used EFA to identify the measure's latent factor structure. The Undergraduate Gender Microaggressions Scale (UGMS) emerged with 18-items and four factors. The factors were (a) Presumed Incompetent (Factor 1-8 items), being treated like you do not understand or do not have the capacity to make a substantial contribution; (b) Gender Role Stereotypes (Factor 2-4 items), being expected to serve as caretaker or take on administrative roles; (3) Male Dominance (Factor 3-4 items), experiencing situation in which men are expected to hold power or serve as the point of reference and women are inferior; and (d) Institutional Invalidations (Factor 4-2 items). For Research Question 2, the frequencies of gender microaggressions, sexual harassment, and sexual assault were examined. Gender microaggressions were ubiquitous, with nearly every participant (99.6%) experiencing at least one form of gender microaggressions. The majority of the sample (87.3%) experienced sexual harassment, with sexual assault experienced less frequently (37.7%). When examining difference in frequency across race and sexual orientation, Asian undergraduate women had lower odds of upper quartile gender microaggressions, sexual harassment, and sexual assault scores. No other significant differences were noted by race or sexual orientation. Research Question 3 was exploratory and examined the locations where gender microaggressions, sexual harassment, and sexual assault occurred on campus. Gender microaggressions were most likely to occur in classrooms and lecture halls, campus grounds, and on social media while sexual harassment was most likely to occur on campus grounds, in classroom and lecture halls and at fraternity and sororities. Sexual assault was a less frequent experience but was most reported in off campus housing and fraternity and sororities. For Research Question 4, gender microaggressions had a significant positive relationship to depression, stress, and posttraumatic stress symptoms when controlling for sexual harassment, sexual assault and relevant demographic variables. Gender microaggressions were also positively related to school avoidance and alcohol use when controlling for sexual harassment, sexual assault, and relevant demographic variables. This dissertation sought to more clearly operationalize and measure sexual violence and gender discrimination within college communities. The refinement of a context (i.e., college campus) and developmentally specific (i.e., undergraduate) gender microaggressions measure is the first step to understand the role of subtle gender discrimination in both sustaining sexually violent cultures and as antecedents to legally actionable sexual offenses for adolescents and emerging adults. Increasing knowledge of gender microaggressions' prevalence and location has the potential to elevate awareness among administrators, funders, practitioner, and students. Disrupting gender microaggressive climates holds the possibility of improving undergraduate women's mental health while also creating more positive environments for women to engage fully with the university resources designed to support their success. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Underreporting of college sexual assaults remains a problem in the United States. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate which factors, that are commonly identified with the feelings of shame, are associated with college sexual assault reporting. Accordingly, this research aimed to answer the following questions: (1) Which shame factors are most salient as reported by bystanders?; (2) Which shame factors have the strongest relationship with non-reporting?; and (3) What is the relationship of "perception of religiosity" with shame factors and campus climate? A quantitative method was utilized to survey a college student population at a west coast private, Christian institution. The survey instrument resulted in 1,597 valid responses with 70% of the responses from women and 52% from white respondents. Several significant areas were identified including gender and feelings of shame and trauma, gender and fearful of external power and academic year and feelings of shame and trauma. Results indicated that the fearful of misconduct revelation sub-scale factors had the greatest correlation for non-reporting due to the fearful of external power factor. Significant relationships included the perception that victims do not report due to the University's religious affiliation and that the University's religious standards make victims feel more shameful. As such, if the university does not address these dynamics, students may continue to fear reporting sexual violence at this institution due to worry of the judicial process in connection to their use of alcohol and/or drugs, in conjunction to the occurrence of sexual violence. Therefore, these research findings should prompt university educators to consider what reporting methods, resources, or educational approaches may need additional focus or modification. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Since April 2011, sexual assault and misconduct on college campuses has become one of the most pressing issues that leaders face in their efforts to maintain a safe campus community. A multiple case study approach explored how mid to senior-level campus leaders achieve Title IX compliance for the purpose of sexual assault prevention and response at two private, Catholic 4-year universities located in the northeastern United States. The study's framework utilized institutional isomorphism and sensemaking theories. Data collection, conducted during summer and fall 2018, included interviews, document analysis, and field observations. Interview participants offered their reflections and understanding of Title IX and its guidance documents, particularly Dear Colleague Letters from April 2011 and September 2017, and how university mission and values inform prevention and response. A constant comparative method of data analysis was used (Merriam, 1998). This method features three levels of coding: open, to group similar concepts to create categories; axial, to determine conceptual linkages among open code categories; and selective, to discover a core category that unifies previous categories (Corbin & Strauss, 1990). Study findings include the following: importance of senior-level leaders, particularly at the Dean or Vice President levels, in convening regular and as-needed policy reviews by committee; financial constraints on training and staffing; use of online and in-person training sessions for incoming students on sexual assault prevention; and prevention and response conceptualized as a collaborative effort among campus leaders and external partners, such as local law enforcement and local domestic and sexual violence crisis centers. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Sexual violence is a significant problem on college and university campuses in the United States affecting large percentages of students during their studies and later in life. To confront this alarming issue, the United States Department of Education's Office of Civil Rights issued new guidance under Title IX of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to colleges and universities beginning with the "Dear Colleague Letter" in April of 2011. The guidance was broad and included a requirement for institutions to identify faculty, staff, and students to serve as Mandatory Reporters based on the types of relationships which they have with students. The purpose of this study was to determine the degree to which Hometown University is meeting its organizational goal of creating a safe learning environment for students. Knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences affecting Mandatory Reporters were identified using the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model. Interviews and document analysis of participant reflections revealed four themes elucidating two knowledge influences, two motivation influences, and two organizational influences. Additionally, this study recommended a comprehensive learning and training program for Mandatory Reporters to address the identified knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps. The recommended training program implementation and evaluation is guided by the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) New World Model for Evaluation, and the four levels of implementation and evaluation tools are detailed. Finally, recommendations for further research are presented. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Campus sexual assault is a significant problem in the United States, affecting a large proportion of college students, most of whom are women. Recognizing the widespread nature of campus sexual assault and its negative impacts on students' education, the Dept. of Education under the Obama Administration took action. In a 2011 directive known as the Dear Colleague Letter, the Office of Civil Rights (OCR) at the Department of Education outlined specific guidance on Title IX, detailing a number of policies colleges and universities that receive federal funding should enact in order to support campus sexual assault survivors/victims and maintain Title IX compliance. If students believe their school has failed to protect them from campus sexual assault, they may bring a complaint to OCR under Title IX and trigger an investigation. In 2017, the Trump Administration rescinded this guidance, though the OCR complaint mechanism remains in place. Despite several years of enforcement, there is little research on the effectiveness of this complaint mechanism, particularly from the standpoint of those who have accessed it. This study interviews campus sexual assault survivors/victims who have filed complaints through OCR, survivors/victims who chose not to file a complaint, and university administrators. Survivor/victim advocates are also focus grouped. Through these qualitative data, this study seeks to build a theory that explains the characteristics of a relationship between survivors/victims and the Federal Government that provides survivors/victims with justice. What results is the just prevention theory, which argues that genuine justice for survivors/victims must be pursued through the lens of prevention. The study concludes with a set of policy recommendations to inform future policymaking that better addresses campus sexual assault in the United States. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Data collected over the past 30+ years consistently show one in five women are sexually assaulted on college campuses (Mccauley & Casler, 2015), and that the occurrence may be even higher due to serious underreporting on campuses (Palmer & Alda, 2016). To better combat sexual assault on campus, universities are charged through federal law and policy (i.e., Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1972) to create systems for the prevention, education, investigation, and adjudication of sexual misconduct. While these policies resulted in significant advances, the continuing rates of sexual assault on college campuses demonstrate that policy alone is not enough. One issue of a policy-focused approach is the focus on individual complainants as opposed to addressing the greater campus culture and climate. According to feminist theory, to solve a complex issue (like sexual assault), institutions must examine the systems that permit oppression to exist on our campuses (Ahmed, 2012). Feminist theory suggests that approaches to sexual assault focused on addressing the entire campus community may have better outcomes for decreasing occurrence of sexual assault while dismantling oppressive systems, such as rape culture, that have historically prevented progress on this issue. This study, using a feminist phenomenological approach (Gardiner, 2017), looked to campus administrators who enact Title IX on their campus to gain a deepened understanding of how college practitioners approach Title IX work. The study had 13 college administrators participate, representing institutions across the U.S. to uncover: How do those responsible for enacting Title IX understand their work as an effort to dismantle rape culture on university campuses? The overarching goal of the study was to identify methods of supporting college administrators in shifting from compliance-focused approaches to more holistic, preventative, culture-focused efforts. What was uncovered was that college campuses are locked within a compliance frame, limiting any potential progress for dismantling campus rape culture and declining rates of campus sexual assault. The study found to break this cycle, college administrators must not move quickly to action, but must focus first on the process of learning, unlearning, and relearning (Tlostanova & Mignolo, 2012). Promising practices for practitioners, policymakers, and further areas for research are also discussed. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The present qualitative narrative inquiry explored Black women's experiences with sexual assault in higher education, focusing specifically on where they found support and their perceptions of campus and community connectedness. The theoretical frameworks used in this study include Black feminist theory, campus connectedness, and community connectedness. Using semi-structured interviewing techniques and content analysis of journal entries for eight self-identified Black women sexual assault survivors, this study sought to answer two overarching research questions: 1. What do the stories of Black women sexual assault survivors reveal about the ways in which they received support by their campus institutions, their community, and their interpersonal social networks? and 2. What do the stories of Black women sexual assault survivors reveal about their experiences of belonging and closeness to others at their campus institutions, in their community, and by their interpersonal social networks? The participants' stories revealed four overarching themes, including navigating processes, reclaiming power, socialization of trauma, and self-definition through advocacy. Implications for centering Black women through a reimagining of Title IX processes that focus on restorative justice and creating more inclusive efforts for sexual violence prevention and intervention strategies in higher education are discussed. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The prevalence of sexual assault on college campuses is well documented with findings revealing both men and women experience victimization. Sexual assault often results in physical and mental issues, poor academic performance, and financial burdens for victims, families, and society. Traditional prevention efforts to reduce sexual violence include security officers, late-night escort services, and self-defense training. These programs have mixed results and recent strategies have shifted toward a bystander intervention approach that focuses on engaging community members by teaching them to recognize warning signs, take safe and effective action to prevent possible assaults, and provide support to victims. To explore further the effect of bystander intervention training on behavior and attitudes related to sexual violence, this study surveyed a random sample of 324 college students. Bystander efficacy and rape-myth acceptance attitudes were assessed as primary outcome variables, with selected demographic variables serving as exploratory outcomes. Using one-way and factorial ANOVAs, this study found few significant differences between the experimental and control groups, the outcome variables, and the demographic variables. Students participating in bystander intervention training reported higher bystander efficacy and lower rape myth acceptance than non-trained students; however, the difference in bystander efficacy scores was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Rape-myth acceptance test results indicated a statistically significant difference between trained and non-trained students; yet, the differences were small. Bystander efficacy outcomes indicated a statistically significant interaction effect between bystander intervention training and academic level and statistically significant main effects were recorded for age, academic level, other training, and knowing a victim of sexual violence/assault. No statistically significant interactions were observed for IRMA outcomes; however, simple main effects were documented for gender, being a victim of sexual violence/assault, or knowing a victim of sexual violence/assault. All significant outcomes were small, with 7% or less of the total variation in average scores attributed to differences in trained and untrained students. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Furthter reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The United States' evolving federal regulations and laws are doing little to disrupt systemic sexual violence, and more narrowly, are doing very little to protect Black women (Dunn, 2014; Harris, 2017; Harris & Linder, 2017; Konradi, 2016; O'Toole et al., 2015; Yung, 2015). Further, Black women are underrepresented in college sexual assault literature and little is known about how Black women perceive campus sexual violence resources and policy (Crosby, 2015; Tillman et al., 2010). The purpose of this study is to create a model to explore Black women's confidence in sexual assault resources. In order for institutions of higher education to combat sexual violence against women, college administrators must understand the factors that impact women's confidence in their sexual violence resources and policies. In this study, I argue that college administrators must eradicate essentialist perspectives of how women perceive resources and are impacted by sexual violence. This study explores the unique factors impacting the confidence level Black undergraduate college women have in campus sexual assault resources. Understanding Black women's unique confidence level is central to providing sexual violence support services that cater to the specific needs of Black women. This quantitative correlational study explores to what extent the independent variables (gendered racism, affective commitment to the institution, perception of safety, perception of support, knowledge of sexual assault resources, and experience with sexual assault) impact Black women's confidence in campus sexual assault resources. The research questions that informed this study were (1) What is the relationship between the independent variables and Black women's confidence in campus sexual assault resources? (2) Which independent variables account for the most variation in Black women's confidence in campus sexual assault resources? For this research study, I utilized black feminist thought (Collins, 2009) and critical race quantitative intersectionality (Covarrubias & Velez, 2013) as theoretical perspectives to create a descriptive quantitative non-experimental, correlational study. The population for this study was undergraduate women, who identify as Black and currently attend attending public, 4-year, predominantly white public colleges within the United States. I utilized survey research methods to collect data from research participants and used multiple regression analysis to address both research questions. Affective commitment to the institution, perception of safety, and knowledge of sexual assault resources had statistically significant impact on Black women's confidence in campus sexual assault resources. This study highlights the pivotal role that campuses have in building confidence in their sexual assault policies, particularly for Black women. This research project underscores that building confidence in sexual assault resources is more complex than just training and informing students of resources, but should include more holistic strategies to build Black women's confidence in their resources. Future research should expand on this research to explore underlying or latent factors that could help explain Black women's confidence levels. Lastly, researchers should explore to what extent state and local laws have on Black women's confidence in campus sexual assault resources. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

One in five women are sexually assaulted while in college (Cantor et al., 2015; Ali, 2011). Research has demonstrated that higher education is a patriarchal environment that is oppressive to women in a number of spheres (Acker, 1990; Burnett et al., 2009; Catalano, 2014; Miriam, 2007; Walby, 1989). Past research on sexual assault and patriarchy has focused on the prevalence of Division-I athletic programs (Crosset, 2016; Perkins & Craig, 2012; Wilson, Pritchard, & Schaffer, 2004; Ziering & Dick, 2015) or Greek life (Anderson & Clement, 2015; Armstrong & Hamilton, 2013; Armstrong, Hamilton, & Sweeney, 2006; Franklin, 2010; Howard, 2015). Less attention has been paid to the campus subcultures, groups, and physical spaces that women take part in as a part of their whole campus experience. In particular, less attention has been paid to medium-sized private institutions. This research employed a feminist framework to analyze the experiences of 14 women on two mid-sized private campuses in regards to their experiences of patriarchy. As a phenomenological study, the lived experiences of the participants within the culture of patriarchy in higher education were made visible (Butler, 1988; Creswell, 2013; Laverty, 2003), with specific focus on academics, extracurriculars, and campus party subcultures and spaces and how these influence women's gender role performances, thus making them vulnerable to sexual assault. Data from the research indicated that while not all women are a victim of sexual assault, all women are subject to the patriarchal climate of higher education. This experience of patriarchy takes place across campus but also within the subcultures, groups, and physical spaces to which they belong. As such, women are constantly in a state of accommodating men and men's desires, whether in the classroom, in their involvement, or at parties. At times, women are able to use their agency to enact their gender role performance in a way that is empowering or are able to seek alternative subcultures that allow them to resist against these patriarchal norms. However, when this is not possible, they use their agency to have their voices heard and to stay safe within the dominant culture. The knowledge gained from this research will allow practitioners, scholars, and policymakers to better understand the experiences of women in order to create programs and practices that make our campuses safe and welcoming for students of all gender identities. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

While studies have shown a consistent association between athlete status and risk-taking behavior (RTB), comparatively little is known about the mechanisms that potentially account for the influence of athletic participation on RTBs. The current study tests a theoretical model linking sensation seeking to RTBs through the perception of risk and reward utilizing a sample of collegiate athletes (N = 134) and non-athletes (N = 383). Specifically, the current study tested whether athletes report greater levels of intentions to engage in four RTBS (fighting, drunk driving, theft, and sexual assault) and greater levels of sensation seeking and whether these processes vary across gender. Furthermore, sensation seeking was proposed to indirectly lead to greater intentions to engage in RTBs through situational appraisals of reward and risk and this process is more salient among athletes. Results suggested that athletes actually reported lower levels of intent to engage in RTBs and sensation seeking, although males did report greater levels for both concepts. Sensation seeking did emerge as a robust predictor of involvement in RTBs and this process was in part explained by appraisals of risks and rewards based on situational characteristics for multiple behaviors. The implications of the findings for this dissertation are discussed. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Approximately one in four women experience sexual violence in college. Public institutions of higher education identify professionals specifically responsible for Title IX compliance, campus grievance processes, and survivor advocacy. Success in these roles depends upon a variety of institutional, legal, and procedural factors, and the ability to balance compliance, accountability, transparency, confidentiality, and care for students in pursuit of institutional justice. However, the literature has failed to acknowledge the complexities and individual cost of serving in these contentious roles. Moreover, facets of organizational culture can hinder grievance professionals' efficacy in fulfilling their duties, facilitating consistent and fair resolutions, and ensuring just outcomes. This exploratory, qualitative study sought to fill the literature gap and add insight into the experiences and perspectives of student conduct, Title IX, and advocacy professionals at multiple public institutions by seeking to understand individual actions, values, and responses in light of organizational structures, institutional policies, leadership, grievance models, and power dynamics. Data indicated that professionals involved in campus grievance endure severe emotional strain in their efforts to facilitate justice, especially if their own values and principles are misaligned with those of institutional leaders, policies, grievance processes, or outcomes. Moreover, the findings suggest that such misalignment diminishes professional efficacy, which increases stress, fatigue, and leads to burnout, thereby decreasing the likelihood of realizing justice. Recommendations include revisions to graduate education, reimagined compelled disclosure policies, the need for employee support programs, and a call for further accountability of institutional leaders. Finally, an alternative paradigm is explicated for moral and justice-centered resolutions of campus sexual assault. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

One of 5 women are sexually assaulted during college, resulting not only in immediate suffering, but also negative consequences that affect their career trajectory and success over a lifetime (Krebs et al., 2016; Loya, 2015). Although previous research has focused on the individual predictors of violence, more recent research has hypothesized the ways campus climate contributes to campus sexual assault by creating social norms that increase a student's risk of sexual assault (Casey & Lindhorst, 2009; DeGue et al., 2012). This study addresses the public health epidemic of sexual violence on college campuses with the guiding research question: To what extent do individual characteristics and campus climate measures contribute to the variation in campus sexual assault victimization? Logistic regression analysis utilized the individual perceptions and self-reported behaviors of 6,643 students and institutional-level predictors to determine the contribution of each variable to the variation in sexual violence victimization on 38 campuses of 4-year universities. Results revealed the type of institution was a significant predictor only until other institutional characteristics were known; individual behaviors, experiences, and peer groups explained the overwhelming variation between students who were and were not sexually assaulted. Findings also revealed 96% of the victims of sexual assault have experienced additional forms of sexual assault or discrimination, creating a constellation of violence in their lives. Implications for administrators include identifying the subcultures that support high-risk behaviors and recognizing the comorbidity of sexual violence. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The purpose of this study was to examine whether scores of attitudes based on labels as measured by the Attitudes Toward Prostitutes and Prostitutions Scale (APPS) and the Attitudes Toward Trafficked Women and Sex Trafficking Scale (ATTS) and counselor attributes predicted scores of empathy on the Empathy Assessment Index (EAI) and scores of rape myth acceptance on the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale Short Form (IRMA-SF) in counselors. The participants in this study (N = 396) included licensed professional counselors (LPCs) and licensed professional clinical counselors (LPCCs) in Ohio. The results of this study found a difference on attitudes depending on whether "prostitute" or "sex trafficking" labels were used. The study also confirmed how attitudes based on labels and counselor demographics predicted empathy scores on the EAI and scores of rape myth acceptance on the IRMA. Within both APPS and ATTS groups, male counselors were more likely to accept rape myths compared to female counselors. The significance of this study's results illuminate the importance of avoiding stigmatizing labels within counseling, counselor education, and counselor supervision settings. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

College women face high rates of sexual violence and rarely report their experiences to school officials. Even when victims do report, their cases infrequently result in the expulsion of their perpetrators. As such, many college women continue to attend school with their perpetrators in the months and years following their assaults. No academic research has explored the experiences of these women coexisting with the person who harmed them. Furthermore, previous research on how perpetrators behave after acts of violence suggests the possibility that individuals who commit sexual assault on campus may try influence their victims after the assault by denying the assault, attacking the victim verbally, and reversing the victim and offender roles (a pattern referred to as DARVO). The current study explores the experiences of 113 women who were sexually assaulted during college, with attention to the impact of any ongoing contact they had with their perpetrators after their assault. This study also examined participants' responses to two different kinds of acquaintance rape vignettes which varied in victim resistance. The results of this dissertation suggest that most campus sexual victims do indeed experience some contact with their perpetrator after their assault and nearly half of victims who experience such contact see it as having a negative effect on their wellbeing. Although a relationship between perpetrator contact and student health outcomes (mental, physical, and academic) did not emerge as expected, participants' written descriptions of seeing their perpetrators provide support for the theory that contact with perpetrators is detrimental to victims' health. The effects of victims' contact with perpetrators are evidently complex and warrant further exploration. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

A mixed methodological approach was used to examine the impact of disclosure characteristics on mental health among individuals who have experienced campus sexual violence occurring at Christian and non-religiously affiliated universities. After completing an online survey, a sample of 97 participants qualified for the study. No disclosure and disclosure to both formal and informal sources were related to more symptomatic distress when compared with informal disclosure only. High positive informal reactions were also associated with more symptomatic distress among survivors disclosing to both formal and informal sources. Additionally, initial disclosure latency was negatively correlated with symptomatic distress. Implications of these results and directions for future research are discussed. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

An abundance of surveys and news reports have clearly indicated that sexual assaults and other violent crimes are prevalent on U.S. college and university campuses. What isn't as well known is how little is being done by most institutions to try and reduce this fact. Poor awareness of the reality of crime rates, combined with widespread policies that discourage the reporting of these crimes gives students and universities a false sense of security. A lack of adequate if any punishment for most offenders encourages escalation of these crimes resulting in a growth of sexual predatory behavior on campuses. This thesis examines why this behavior is occurring, what is and is not being done about it, and what needs to be done.

Sexual violence in the United States continues to be a growing problem. Collegiate women face some of the highest rates of sexual violence, with statistics estimating one in four women will have this unwanted experience sometime during their college career. With Title IX administrators required to provide sexual violence awareness, more colleges have implemented prevention programs. However, research lacks solid evidence regarding the audience, what factors to address, and the effectiveness in changing behavior. Although sexual violence is a men's issue, few programs are targeted toward decreasing men's proclivity to commit sexual violence. This dissertation reviewed male-audience prevention programs to determine what elements led to rape-tolerant attitude change. After combining programmatic factors deemed effective, a sexual violence prevention program, "Helping Sexual Violence Survivors" was created. This program incorporates sexual violence awareness and education as well as bystander intervention skills in an effort to change men's rape-tolerant attitudes. Feedback from program participants, revisions, and implementation strategies are discussed. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

While research makes clear that individuals' gender, racial, and sexual identities and their intersections impact experiences of and responses to sexual and gender-based violence, the literature on college sexual assault prevention programs reflects an overwhelming absence of this type of identity-based program content. This Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) study explored the experience of sexual assault prevention program trainers for college campuses conceptualizing their program content related to gender, racial, and sexual identity. Through the theoretical framework of Socialization Theory (Hart, 1991), focused attention was given to understanding how trainers' professional and organizational socialization impact this phenomenon. This study's findings make visible the significance of sexual assault prevention program content that focuses on the intersections of sexism, racism, and queerphobia and the challenges and rewards trainers experience in conceptualizing this program content's inclusion and/or exclusion. This study found that while it might appear on the surface that trainers are making simplistic, binary decisions about the inclusion or exclusion of identity-based content, that trainers actually grapple with the complexity of this content and seek nuanced ways to address marginalized and privileged student experiences. This study concludes with contributions to theory and research, and provides implications for practice. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Sexual assault has been an issue facing institutions of higher education for many years (Office of Civil Rights, 2011). Alcohol plays a role in both who have been victims of sexual assault and who have perpetrated the crime of sexual assault (Crawford, Wright, & Birchmeier, 2008). The purpose of this study was to look at sexual misconduct at institutions of higher education and to determine if substance use, such as alcohol or drugs, is a factor in the incidence of sexual misconduct happening to students on college campuses. The quantitative data section of the study reviewed three years of data from the Survey of College Health and Behavior. Baseline data were reviewed to show the rate of individuals experiencing nonconsensual sexual contact. Almost 6% of students reported they were taken advantage of sexually due to alcohol use. Over 16% reported they had engaged in risky sexual behavior due to alcohol use, and over 3% had been taken advantage of sexually due to alcohol use by others. Over 1% of students reported they had taken advantage of someone due to their alcohol use. More than 18% of students reported using alcohol or drugs to feel more comfortable with a sexual partner. Half of the 12 survey questions asked had an average of over 70% of respondents who had utilized protective factors. For the qualitative portion of the study, seven interviews were conducted with Title IX Coordinators at higher education institutions in the Midwest with experience ranging from one year to 15 years of working with sexual misconduct in the collegiate setting. Four themes emerged from the interviews: consent, communication, programming, and promotion. Based on the findings from this study, students need to be aware of the connection between substance use and sexual misconduct. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Between the steady prevalence rate of sexual violence on college campuses (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2006; Black et al., 2011), the micro and macro levels of impact of sexual violence (Obama & Biden, 2014), and increased attention on universities' (White House Council on Women and Girls & Office of the Vice President, 2014) prevention of sexual violence on campus is making greater progress. Principles of bystander intervention identify the first steps to behavioral change is clearing obstacles of knowledge (Aronowitz et al., 2012; Burn, 2009). Rape myths were identified as a perpetuating force in our rape culture to support the continuation of sexual violence (Ryan, 2011; Weiss, 2009). The purpose of the current study is to investigate the use of sexual violence education on rape myths via an allied masculinity and bystander intervention. This investigation found RMA was reduced as measured by the Updated IRMA-SF Scale after participation in the "Men of UT" program. Further, three of the four subscales demonstrated significant reduction of RMA as measured by the Update IRMA-SF Scale. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

In 2011 the U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights released additional guidance to colleges and universities on how they should handle campus sexual harassment and assault. Since that time institutions of higher education have been under significant pressure to improve their processes. This qualitative study adds to this conversation, expanding the knowledge base to include information, observation, and insight from 21 administrators who work closely with the student conduct response to campus sexual misconduct. Specifically, this study explores what Title IX staff, conduct officers, and advocates/advisors from 3 large public institutions, 1 midsize public institution, and 4 small private colleges want and need from a campus conduct response to student sexual misconduct. It also examines their perspectives on survivor/victim and campus community expectations of the adjudication process and explores the possibility of adding restorative justice to the list of options available to campus officials negotiating this complex landscape. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Gender based violence is experienced at higher rates on college campuses than in other communities. One in five women experience acquaintance rape during their academic career and less than 5% of college women who have experienced sexual assault report their victimization (Fisher, Cullen, & Turner, 2000). Recent federal guidance is meant to increase campus capacity to respond to this gender-based violence at colleges and universities, but it is unclear if the approach released by the recent Campus SaVE Act will meet this goal. New federal legislation has sparked strong guidance from the Office of Civil Rights and the Department of Education. Part of this guidance has loosely clarified the expectation of mandatory reporters (also known as Responsible Employees) on college campuses. Guidance from ATIXA (Association of Title IX Administrators) suggests that all university employees be mandatory reporters. However, this designation is still left to the discretion of each institution. In other words, there is currently no standard definition of what constitutes a "mandatory reporter". Expecting many university employees to be mandatory reporters is a shift for many institutions and will position many faculty and staff who have felt a certain level of confidentiality privilege with students to a different role. Having a better understanding of how institutions are developing and implementing new policies related to the federal guidance and the impact that policy development/implementation has on their gender-based violence prevention and response programs, is critical to the ultimate success of these efforts. The consistent prevalence of the public health epidemic of gender-based violence on college campuses as well as consistently low rates of reporting these incidents indicate the need for responsive prevention and response policies and practices at institutions of higher education. Currently, the variance in interpretation and policy development resulting from the federal guidance and impact on existing prevention and response efforts is unknown. Through a case study feminist policy analysis approach, this study addresses the following questions: 1) How have campus administrators interpreted the Campus SaVE legislation and guidance regarding mandatory reporting; 2) What frameworks have they used to develop campus policy and practices in response to Campus SaVE and mandatory reporting; and 3) What are successful elements of policy development and implementation with respect to the Campus SaVE guidance regarding mandated reporting. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Sexual violence on college campuses is a pervasive problem with the potential for extensive physical and psychological health consequences. Institutions have begun implementing prevention programs; however, more research is needed to understand whether these programs are effective. Bystander intervention programs have increased in popularity likely because the model empowers all students to act as positive bystanders in situations where there is risk of sexual violence occurring. Previous research has indicated that bystander programs have been effective at increasing bystander attitudes and behaviors. The current study aimed to assess the additive benefits of combining a program targeting bystander outcomes with one that focuses on college student social and sexual development to improve outcomes. Specifically, it was hypothesized that the emphasis on relationship development would help students more effectively identify situations that involve risky or unhealthy behaviors, better enabling them to intervene. Participants were sorority women (N = 102) from four sorority organizations that elected to participate in the study. Each sorority organization was assigned to a programming condition based on the interest of the sorority's president, who selected either the bystander intervention program ("Bringing in the Bystander"), the healthy relationships program ("Sexpectations: Healthy relationships and sexuality for college students"), both programs, or the comparison condition. The study assessed bystander attitudes, bystander efficacy, bystander behaviors, and rape myth acceptance attitudes as the primary outcome variables, with alcohol use, sex-related alcohol expectancies, and emotional abuse victimization as exploratory outcomes. Results were conducted through repeated measures ANOVA and t-tests. Given that the independence of observations assumption was not met since participants were not randomized into groups, analyses were conducted with both types of analyses to reduce the risk of making a Type I error. Results indicated there were no significant differences between in the dependent variables for any of the four conditions. The only exception for the programming conditions was a significant increase in bystander intention to help strangers attitudes for the healthy relationships condition. For the comparison group, there were significant decreases in bystander behaviors and efficacy. It was unclear why the results revealed little significant change in the bystander attitudes and behaviors, given the existing literature on bystander intervention. This may have been influenced by research design and/or small sample size which could reduce power. The lack of observed changes for the bystander outcomes and the significant decreases in bystander behaviors and efficacy for the comparison group may suggest that these constructs may be less stable than originally thought, or may be influenced by outside factors such stressors or the availability of situations in which to intervene. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]