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Background: In Sri Lanka where seventy per cent of the population is Buddhist, there are more than twelve thousand Buddhist monasteries accessed by children for educational and religious purposes. Despite scandalous media reports on incidents of child abuse in Buddhist monasteries in Sri Lanka (BMS), no previous academic or public inquiry has been undertaken on this issue. Aim: The study set out to explore and describe the silence around child abuse in the monastic context at an interpersonal, institutional, professional and academic level. Method: Operationally defining the incidents of child abuse in the BMS as the case, an instrumental case study approach was employed (Stake, 1998). Using social constructionism (Burger and Luckman, 1967) and ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) as a theoretical framework, data were gathered from multiple sources including semi-structured interviews with four former monks who had experienced child abuse as novice monks, three senior monks who were familiar with and willing to discuss the issue, and three child protection officers with relevant work experience. Interview data were analysed using thematic networking (Attride-Sterling, 2001) and reflexive thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke, 2019). Other data sources included a reflexive journal, and publicly available data such as policy documents, media reports and interviews. Results: Data analysis produced three thematic clusters: predisposing silencers, precipitating silencers, and perpetuating silencers. While survivors' accounts converged on other data sources, accounts of monastic leaders and child protection officers contained a mixture of convergent and divergent views. Conclusions: Overall, the findings indicated that: the survivors silently absorbed the memories of abuse due to various interpersonal, social, and structural limitations, the monastic leadership remained reticent due to ignorance, interest in institutional power and reputation, while the child protection service towards children in monasteries was hampered by structural, cultural and policy limitations. The findings contribute to the existing literature by providing unique insights into the social ecological barriers to recognition, disclosure, and intervention of child abuse in loosely regulated institutions in developing countries.

Background: Low back pain (LBP) is the number one cause of dyability globally. In the majority of patients LBP is non-specific (NSLBP). Despite the well-established recommendations and guidelines, people with NSLBP find it difficult to engage in physical activity (PA) and exercise due to the complex nature of their pain. Digital interventions offer potential solution to encourage people with NSLBP to be active and exercise. However current interventions provide only general advice not considering the complexity of NSLBP and have shown poor outcomes. Aim: To explore the potential role of a digital intervention in promoting optimum exercise self-management in people with NSLBP. Methods: Following the MRC Guidance on the Development and Evaluation of Complex Interventions which advocates using theory, evidence, user testing and appropriate modelling and piloting, this project had 3 phases. Stage 1: identifying the evidence base using a systematic review and meta-analysis focussed on the effect of self-management interventions with exercise components, Stage 2: identifying or developing theory using a focus group study and a mixed methods survey involving stakeholders to identify the interventions functions to include in the intervention to deliver a tailored ESM for NSLBP. Stage 3: developing the BACK-to-FIT digital platform and preliminary evaluation. A prototype version of the website was developed with input from stage 1 and 2. Implementation and behaviour change theories informed this process. Primary outcome of the preliminary evaluation was usability, measured using System usability score (SUS). Secondary outcome measures were technology acceptance measured with TAM3 questionnaire, and potential health benefits measured with NPRS, exercise self-efficacy questionnaire (SSE), Oswestry disability index (ODI), Coping strategies questionnaire (CSQ-24) and level of PA (IPAQ-SF). User experience of the BACK-to-FIT was explored using semi-structured individual interviews. Results: Stage 1 : Demonstrated that self-management programmes with exercise components in them have moderate but significant, short-, intermediate- and long-term positive effect both on pain and disability in patients with chronic NSLBP. A vast heterogeneity was present in the content, frequency and duration of the interventions. Furthermore, not all exercise programmes were tailored according to persons' need and capabilities. Stage 2: Results from focus group discussions involving 14 musculoskeletal physiotherapists indicated the key considerations when designing a tailored ESM programme for people with NSLBP and identified important components to include in a potential digital ESM intervention included: improving LBP education and awareness, strategies to improve self-monitoring and adherence, use of general and specific exercise, progression and regression of exercise and providing feedback. Findings from the survey with 71 LBP experts responded, revealed 17 key subjective questions and 5 physical tests together with 2 new tests suggested by experts when designing a tailored ESM intervention in NSLBP. Stage 3: The BACK-to-FIT digital platform, prototype version was developed using Intervention functions and behaviour change identified from stage 2. It consisted of 4 main modules involving one LBP education module and 3 exercise modules with 35 different exercises. Twelve participants used the intervention for four weeks and completed the follow up study; Age range 25-50 (mean 38.8), 50% male and 50% female. Primary outcome - mean usability score was 81.87 (47.5-95) measured out of 100. Secondary outcomes - the highest and lowest mean scores obtained for any TAM3 construct were 6.6 and 5.04 for computer anxiety and subjective norm constructs respectively. The highest possible score to achieve was 7. Secondary outcome scores for pain, disability, exercise self-efficacy, catastrophising and PA levels improved from 4.00 (NPRS), 15.33 (ODI), 37.5 (SEE), 9.08 (CSQ-24) and 1513.62 MET -minutes/week (IPAQ-SF) to 2.16 (NPRS), 9.00 (ODI) , 59.67 (SEE) , 5.41 (CSQ-24) and 2070.25 MET -minutes/week (IPAQ-SF) at 4-week follow-up. Feedback from interviews was mainly positive with some suggestions focused on future improvements of the interventions. Conclusion: BACK-to-FIT has been shown to be acceptable to potential end users, has very good usability and has potential for effectiveness. This intervention merits further development, and subsequent evaluation in a larger scale study.

Waiting times for elective surgery have grown steadily over time in many countries and were recently heightened by the COVID-19 pandemic. The overall aim of this thesis is to identify opportunities to improve the efficiency of health systems, in particular to minimise major bottle necks that hinder patient throughput over the elective surgical care pathways. The health systems research in this thesis uses two research methodologies relevant to each of the two research elements. These are a portfolio of systematic reviews and a descriptive study. First, a portfolio of systematic reviews was completed to synthesise and collate global evidence on policy strategies and interventions to reduce long waiting times for elective surgeries. The second component investigated concerns of HCW towards COVID-19 vaccination using a descriptive study methodology. In the first component, the electronic search in the five bibliographic databases yielded 7543 records and 92 eligible articles were identified with the updated search as 21 quasi-experimental, 61 cohort, 7 systematic reviews, and 3 experimental studies. Considering the relevance and validity of evidence presented for numerous interventions, this component of the thesis presented as seven sub-reviews listed for seven major strategic areas namely; referral management, patient prioritisation, prevent surgery cancellations, perioperative time management, public private partnership, quality improvement methods, waiting time targets. In the second component, the overall results confirmed that a majority (93.5%) of the HCW were vaccinated and only 6.5% declined the vaccine. Among the vaccine declined group, primary level education was the single socio-demographic barrier associated with not receiving the COVID-19 vaccine and most of this group were health assistants. Combining these two elements shows that the ongoing problem of long waiting times for elective surgeries could be minimised by strong vaccination policies and systematic implementation of effective waiting time strategies into surgical care pathways that cause delays.

Collaborative work is a type of learning activity given to students. This type of learning activity encourages students to work actively with their group members. Therefore, the participation of group members is important during group-based activities. When delivering collaborative work, not only a face-to-face environment but also a computer-supported environment can be used. Virtual worlds are one such computer-supported environment that can be used to deliver group-based activities. A virtual world is a synthetic environment where participants communicate and navigate using avatars. The present study investigates the experiences and perceptions of undergraduate students at a Sri Lankan Higher Education Institute regarding their participation in collaborative work delivered in their courses and the virtual world. An interpretivist paradigm was adopted to explore the phenomenon in greater detail. Both qualitative and quantitative data tools were used to provide credibility to the findings. The findings indicate that two factors influence Sri Lankan students' participation in collaborative work. The first is the amount of exposure to group-based activities the study participants had prior to entering higher education. On entering higher education, those students who had less exposure, find it challenging to participate in collaborative work as they do not know how to work as a group. The second factor is that belonging to a post-colonial community influences the way students work in the activities. Introducing virtual worlds to conduct collaborative work was novel to the study participants. The findings highlight that the concern raised by belonging to a post-colonial community is mitigated when the students work in virtual worlds. However, their understanding of working interactively is not resolved as virtual worlds alone cannot address the situation. Thus, the Sri Lankan school system needs to develop its curriculum to bridge the gap between school education and higher education. This study contributes knowledge to fill the gaps identified in the literature review by identifying the root causes of passive participation of Sri Lankan higher education students when they engage in collaborative work. Further, it identifies to what extent virtual worlds can mitigate these issues. Finally, this study proposes a conceptual framework for academics in Sri Lankan Higher Education Institutes to use when they deliver collaborative work.

For decades, construction projects around the globe have been suffered to complete on budget due to ongoing cost overruns. Accordingly, both developed and developing countries have reported a number of construction projects that have resulted in increased initial project costs. As a result, several studies have been undertaken to investigate the causes of cost overruns and found that inaccurate project cost estimates are a major reason for project cost overruns. Conventional tasks, such as manual quantity take-off, the use of 2D drawings, and a lack of information that are embedded within the process when preparing cost estimates, were found to be challenging to produce accurate cost estimates. Nevertheless, through the use of Building Information Modelling (BIM) many countries, both developed and developing, have been able to prepare accurate cost estimates by overcoming the consequences of conventional cost estimation practices. Many BIM adopted countries have identified drivers and barriers as part of the BIM adoption process and been able to develop BIM frameworks to enhance its adoption. Many studies indicate that BIM is a buzzword for the Sri Lankan construction industry and placed in BIM level 0. Majority of the quantity surveying organizations are lagging behind of adopting BIM to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. Therefore, BIM adoption among quantity surveying organisations has often been criticised, as many have not yet adopted BIM within their practice. Although the literature indicates the importance of a nationally developed BIM framework, Sri Lanka not yet developed a BIM adoption framework by identifying national wide barriers and solutions. Accordingly, this research seeks to explore the issues behind non-BIM adoption to resolve the issue. This research inquiries into the drivers and barriers to BIM adoption, in order to provide affordable solutions. Thus, a framework if proposed to enhance BIM adoption, by identifying the gaps in BIM adoption (drivers and barriers) and the mitigating actions required to overcome these barriers. And the selection of a specific developing country would permit an in-depth understanding of the process of BIM adoption; thus, Sri Lanka was selected for the proposed purpose of this research. This study adopts an explanatory, sequential mixed method that applies a questionnaire survey and a semi-structured interview within a case study. The case study and survey data were collected separately in Sri Lanka from June 2017 to January 2018. The collected quantitative data was analysed descriptively and ranked using a relative important index analysis. The qualitative data were analysed using a thematic analysis technique to identify the themes and patterns. The results show that only a few QS organisations have adopted BIM. Nevertheless, it was found that six major drivers, namely BIM benefits, client demand, professional bodies, BIM-related training, organisational pressure, and BIM education, influence organisations to adopt BIM. Moreover, the use of a BIM model, automated quantity take-off, improved visualisation, improved information management, clash detection and timesaving were the highlighted as the key BIM benefits for QS organisations. In the meantime, the findings further identified the interrelationships between major drivers. Besides, six major barriers were also identified, namely financial, organisational, unawareness, the lack of market demand, the lack of resources, regulatory issues, and sub-factors, which hinder the adoption of BIM. In the meantime, findings further revealed the root causes for each barrier and identified interrelationships between the major barriers. Moreover, mitigating actions to overcome the impact of the barriers and their root causes were also identified. The analysis further showed that some of the empirical findings replicate those in similar contexts reported in the literature for other countries. A framework was produced and presented at the end of the thesis, which was designed to enable plausible means to overcome the impact of the barriers found. The proposed framework is expected to benefit quantity surveying organisations, architects, and other construction industry-related professionals to evaluate their strengths in BIM adoption (drivers) and to mitigate the impact of barriers that lead to the non-adoption of BIM. It is also expected to benefit construction-related professional bodies, governments, and academics by determining their role in support of BIM adoption.

Replacement of saturated fat (SFA) with unsaturated fats is recognised as an effective strategy to lower cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk; however, the optimal type of fat is unclear. The majority of studies examining the effects of dietary fat composition on lipids and vascular function have been conducted in the fasting state, with very little known about the acute effects of meal fat composition on postprandial lipaemia. This is particularly important since individuals spend up to 18 h in the postprandial (fed) state, with non-fasting triacylglycerollevels now recognised as an important CVD risk factor in women. However, conclusions from my literature review revealed that little is known about the effects ofmeal fat composition on postprandial lipaemia and vascular function in postmenopausal women, an understudied subgroup ofthe population at increased CVD risk. It was hypothesised that, relative to test meals rich in SFA, those rich in monounsaturated (MUFA) or n-6 polyunsaturated fat (n-6 PUFA) would improve vascular function, postprandial lipaemia and other CVD risk markers, with differential responses dependent on the Glu298Asp polymorphism (eNOS genotype) and APOLIPOPROTEIN E (APOE) (epsilon) genotype in postmenopausal women. In a double-blind, randomised, cross-over, postprandial study, 32 postmenopausal women consumed sequential test meals (0 min, 50 g fat; 330 min, 30 g fat) rich in SFA (butter), MUFA fat (olive oil and MUFA-rich spreads) or n-6 PUFA fat (safflower oil and n-6 PUFA-rich spreads) on three separate occasions, each 4-6 weeks apart. Postprandial flow-mediated dilatation (FMD, primary outcome measure), laser Doppler imaging and digital volume pulse responses were not different after consumption ofthe test fats. For diastolic blood pressure, there was a significantly greater reduction in the incremental area under the curve (IAUC) for the postprandial response after the MUFA than SFA-rich meals (P=0.009), with a similar trend found for systolic blood pressure (P=0.012). These findings were linked with a greater reduction in the IAUC for postprandial plasma nitrite (a biomarker for nitric qxide, an important vasodilator) after the SFA than MUF A¬rich meals (P=O.O10). An effect of meal fat composition was also evident on the postprandial intracellular adhesion molecule response, with a greater reduction after the n-6 PUF A than SFA and MUFA-rich (P≤O.OO1) meals. There was little impact of the different dietary fats on postprandial lipid, glucose and insulin responses, although a significant meal fat effect was evident for postprandial IL-1ß production by ex-vivo whole blood culture lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated blood samples (a real time measure of inflammation), with higher concentrations observed after the SFA than MUFA and n-6 PUFA-rich meals (P < O.OOOl). When the data were stratified according to genotype, the eNOS Glu298Asp polymorphism was revealed to be a likely determinant of the inter-individual variability in the postprandial % FMD (P=O.019) and insulin responses to acute dietary fat intake. As expected APOE genotype was associated with baseline fasting plasma lipids and inflammatory markers (C-reactive protein) but our study also revealed a novel impact on arterial stiffness. However, there was limited impact of APOE genotype on cardio-metabolic risk markers in response to acute and chronic fat manipulation. In conchision, this PhD has shown for the first time that meal fat composition has a significant impact on blood pressure, plasma nitrite, markers of endothelial activation, and ex-vivo IL-1ß cytokine production, but no effect on postprandial lipaemia in postmenopausal women. The eNOS Glu298Asp polymorphism and APOE genotype may also be important in relation to vascular function in this population group, and warrant further investigation. Overall, these findings will contribute to the evidence base for dietary fat recommendation and may be important in identifying population subgroups with greater responsiveness to the beneficial effects of targeted dietary fatty acid manipulation through personalised nutrition.

The general use of textiles began twenty-seven thousand years ago. However, today, textiles are used, not only in the production of clothing but are also found in numerous applications in medicine, the military, transport, construction sectors and in many industrial applications. Normally textiles are passive, however active textiles have been developed that exhibit the capability of adapting their functionality according to changes in their surroundings, i.e. environment. Such textiles are known as Smart and Interactive Textiles (SMIT) and are capable of sensing and being active. The integration of semiconductor devices into textiles has enormous potential in the creation of SMIT. Such SMIT structures will pave the way for the creation of truly-wearable electronic systems in the near future. The aim of this research is the development of a core technology for embedding functional semiconductor devices within the fibres of a yarn, in order to create electronically-active yarns (e-yarn). Such electronically-active yarns will be the building blocks of the next generation of wearable electronics. Moreover, this will facilitate the creation of innovative solutions able to overcome current problems and difficulties which the manufacturers of wearable textiles are experiencing and open the doors for designers to develop the next generation of truly-wearable computers which are comfortable to wear, flexible and washable. The e-yarns could be used in medical applications such as monitoring of ECG, respiratory patterns, blood pressure and skin temperature. They could be adopted by industries such as automotive, retail, manufacturing, military, the internet of soft things, consumer products, sports, fashion and entertainment. The development of the core technology required raw materials analysis in terms of physical, mechanical and electrical properties; creation of interconnections of electronic semi-conductor chips with copper filaments; encapsulation of the interconnections to improve washability and provide extra mechanical strength to the core filaments prior to making the final yarn. The final step was the process of manufacturing yarns using the knit braiding technique. A number of prototypes of e-textiles were produced including illuminated yarns, thermistor yarns, RFID yarns, magnetic yarns, vibration sensor yarns, illuminated garment, illuminated car seat, RFID-intergraded garments, a temperature-monitoring fabric mat and temperature-monitoring socks in order to investigate the manufacturing viability, identify practical issues, and to promote the technology to attract further funds and potential commercial partners.

The recent developments in Low Temperature Co-fired Ceramic (LTCC) as a substrate material enable it to be used in the micro and millimetre wave range providing low dissipation factors at high frequencies, good dielectric properties and a high degree of integration for further miniaturised devices. The most common metallisation method used in LTCC technology is screen printing with high cost noble metals such as silver and gold that are compatible with the high sintering temperatures (850°C). However, these techniques require high capital cost and maintenance cost. As the commercial world requires convenient and low cost process technologies for mass production, alternative metallisation methods should be considered. As a result, electroless copper plating of fired LTCC was mainly investigated in this research. The main goals of this project were to carry out electroless plating of fired LTCC with sufficient adhesion and to extend the process to metallise closed LTCC channel structures to manufacture Substrate Integrated Waveguide (SIW) components. The objectives were focused on electroless copper deposition on fired LTCC with improved adhesion. Electroless deposits on the Sn/Pd activated LTCC surface showed poor adhesion without any surface pre-treatments. Hence, chemical etching of fired LTCC was carried out using concentrated NaOH solution. NaOH pre-treatment of LTCC led to the formation of flake like structures on the LTCC surface. A number of surface and chemical analysis techniques and weight measurements were used to investigate the mechanism of the modification of the LTCC surface. The results showed that the flake like structures were dispersed in the LTCC material and a material model for the LTCC structure was proposed. SEM EDX elemental mapping showed that the flake like structure consisted of aluminium, calcium, boron and oxygen. Further experiments showed that both the concentration of NaOH and the immersion time affect the surface morphology and the roughness of fired LTCC. The measured Ra values were 0.6 μm for untreated LTCC and 1.1 μm for the LTCC sample treated with 4M NaOH for 270 minutes. Adhesion tests including peel test and scratch test were carried out to examine the adhesion strength of the deposited copper and both tests indicated that the NaOH pre-treatment led to an improvement, with the best results achieved for samples treated with 4M NaOH. A second aspect of the research focused on the selective metallisation of fired LTCC. Excimer laser machining was used to pattern a resist film laminated on the LTCC surface. This process also roughened the substrate and created channels that were characterised with respect to the laser operating parameters. After patterning the resist layer, samples were activated using Sn/Pd catalyst solution followed by the electroless copper deposition. Electroless copper was selectively deposited only on the patterned LTCC surface. Laser parameters clearly affected the copper plating rate. Even with a similar number of shots per area, the tracks machined with higher repetition rate showed relatively more machining depth as well as good plating conditions with low resistance values. The process was further implemented to realize a complete working circuit on fired LTCC. Passive components including a capacitor and an inductor were also fabricated on LTCC using the mask projection technique of the excimer laser system. This was successful for many designs, but when the separation between conductor lines dropped below 18 μm, electroless copper started to deposit on the areas between them. Finally, a method to deposit copper films on the internal walls of closed channel structures was developed. The method was first demonstrated by flowing electroless copper solutions through silane treated glass capillaries. A thin layer (approx. 60 nm) of electroless copper was deposited only on the internal walls of the glass capillaries. The flow rate of the electroless copper solution had to be maintained at a low level as the copper deposits tended to wash away with higher flow rates. The structures were tested for transmission losses and showed low (<10dB) transmission losses in the terahertz region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The process was further applied to deposit electroless copper on the internal walls of the LTCC closed channel structures to manufacture a LTCC Substrate Integrated Waveguide (SIW).

Regular expressions are ubiquitous in computer science. Originally defined by Kleene in 1956, they have become a staple of the computer science undergraduate curriculum. Practical applications of regular expressions are numerous, ranging from compiler construction through smart text editors to network intrusion detection systems. Despite having been vigorously studied and formalized in many ways, recent practical implementations of regular expressions have drawn criticism for their use of a non-standard backtracking algorithm. In this research, we investigate the reasons for this deviation and develop a semantics view of regular expressions that formalizes the backtracking paradigm. In the process we discover a novel static analysis capable of detecting exponential runtime vulnerabilities; an extremely undesired reality of backtracking regular expression matchers.

Combined sewer networks control, like many other real world problems, is usually identified with competing and conflicting objectives. Decision makers have a great need of selecting the best possible control strategy in minimizing the combined sewer overflows (CSOs) when controlling the sewer networks. However, this control strategy should be cost effective to produce a feasible control approach in real world. Cost effectiveness has become significantly important in present economic recession. Over the past decades, people have witnessed the control strategies based on minimization of CSOs. However, it is now, not only to minimize CSOs, but also to minimize the impact to the natural water from these CSOs. Therefore, this research explores the development of a holistic framework that is used for the multi-objective optimization of urban wastewater systems, considering flows and water quality in combined sewers and the cost of wastewater treatment. Pollution levels of several water quality parameters in dry weather flows and stormwater runoff are considered. Pollutographs for several water quality parameters are generated for the stormwater runoff. Temporal and spatial variations of the stormwater runoff are incorporated using these pollutographs for different land-uses. Furthermore, pollutographs are developed for different storm conditions, including single, two consecutive and migrating storms. Evolutionary algorithms are extensively used in solving the developed multiobjective optimization approach. Formulations for two different optimization approaches, one for the snapshot optimization and the other one for the dynamic optimization are developed. Simulation results from a full hydraulic model, including water quality routing are used in the optimization. The performance of the multi-objective optimization models are tested on a simple interceptor sewer system for several storm conditions. The proposed optimization approach for snapshot optimization gives the optimal CSO control settings where a single set of static control settings is used throughout the considered time period. However, the proposed optimization approach for dynamic optimization is capable of producing control strategies over the full duration of storm period. Furthermore, results for a number of alternative formulations in constraint handling for the developed multi-objective optimization approach are compared. They produce interesting findings. Overall, the constraint handling formulations developed outside the genetic (NSGA II) algorithm provides better control in combined sewer networks. In addition, the results of the multi-objective optimization demonstrate the benefits of the usage of optimization approach and its potential to establish the key properties of a range of control strategies through an analysis of the various tradeoffs involved. Solutions from the dynamic optimization approach highlight the usage of the real-time control in combined sewer systems. Given that the technology is there to measure water quality and flow rates, collect data and send feedbacks to the sewer system through central processing unit and the usage of high performance computers, the developed optimization model is capable of handing the present society's concerns in combined sewer systems. The model is capable of controlling the existing sewer networks according to the receiving water regulations and the fund availability of the wastewater treatment plants. However, further research is required to apply the developed multi-objective optimization approach in real-time control of urban sewer systems.

Visible light photocatalysis has become a powerful synthetic tool that can be used to promote various functional group transformations through the use of visible light as a green and traceless reagent. Recently, we have attempted to develop a reagent capable of promoting visible light prenylation. Prenylation is an essential reaction on which nature relies to modify properties of molecules and build terpenoids, but one which remains a challenging chemical reaction. Aiming to capitalize on recent advances in photocatalysis to cleanly generate a broad range of carbon based radicals, we have developed a prenyl transfer reagent that can capture transiently generated radicals. The reagent can be made in bulk, is bench stable, and broadly applicable such that it can be used with existing photocatalytic methods with very few changes to reaction conditions. In our next effort, we explored strategies to expand the scope of visible light mediated cross-couplings to alkyl halides. While aryl halides have proven to be competent precursors to aryl radicals, the extreme reduction potentials of unactivated alkyl halides limit their generality as radical precursors in organic synthesis via photocatalysis. To circumvent this limitation, we leveraged alkyl halides tendency towards substitution to install a functional group more inclined towards electron transfer and ultimately fragmentation to generate benzylic radicals from a variety of benzyl halides that would be sluggish, inert, or incompatible with current visible light photoredox catalysis. Applying this strategy, we demonstrate the use of collidinium salts as new reagents for formation of C-C bond which highlights the mild reaction conditions and high functional group tolerance. Finally, we demonstrated the visible light mediated photocatalyst free selective debromination of activated poly-bromides in the presence of amines. This visible light mediated alkyl bromide and chloride synthesis is a particularly convenient synthetic approach when coupled to perhalogenation reactions from the literature. This selective defunctionalization effectively separates the problems of bond formation and reaction selectivity and facilitates the synthesis of organo-bromides and -chlorides. We found that these photochemical reductions rely either on the formation of an electron donor-acceptor complex of the substrate and reductant, or alternatively on an auto-photocatalysis pathway.

Functional impairment is a major problem for people with dementia. In most cases, family carers often provide care for functional disabilities without adequate knowledge and training. Smart-technologies are one means that may help family carers to improve their knowledge and training for functional disability care. This study aimed to develop an mHealth (smartphone) application for family carers of people with dementia to address their needs related to the management of functional disabilities of their care recipients. A mixed-method study was undertaken in Australia using an iterative co-design process consisting of two phases: (1) needs assessment, including an online survey and individual in-depth interviews with carers, and health and information technology [IT] experts; and (2) the development of content and prototype of an mHealth application. This study was informed by adult learning theory. The needs assessment phase aimed to identify family carers’ needs concerning the provision of functional disability care and use of mHealth applications when seeking health information. First, an exploratory, descriptive study was conducted through an online survey. Family carers of people with dementia living in the community with a diagnosis of any type and stage of dementia were recruited through dementia support websites and social media. In the survey, 166 family carers participated. The majority of family carers reported a moderate (54.2%) to high (37.3%) need for education concerning the provision of functional disability care. In the sample, 74.1% of respondents presented with a high level of carer burden, while 86.7% and 77% of respondents reported adequate health literacy and eHealth literacy levels. Almost all the respondents (98.8%) owned one or more smart-mobile devices. Just over half had experience using mHealth applications (51.2%). Approximately half the respondents (48.2%) stated that they had used mHealth applications to achieve health behaviour goals. The factors associated with the need for education about functional disability care were age, education and eHealth literacy level. The factors associated with having mHealth applications were employment status, eHealth literacy level and need for education about functional disability care. Following the survey, a qualitative descriptive exploratory study via in-depth interviews (in-person or by telephone) was undertaken. A purposive sample of family carers living in the community in Australia was recruited. Five child carers and five spousal carers participated. Four key themes were identified: (1) challenges that contribute to psychological distress and burden; (2) essential role of support systems in dementia care; (3) perception of information and educational needs among family carers, and (4) experiences and attitudes of mHealth applications as an educational and supportive resource. In the next stage, individual semi-structured interviews were conducted with experts following an interview guide. A convenience sample of experts who had experience with dementia care (two aged care nurses, two physicians, two occupational therapists) and an IT expert who had experience with mHealth application development participated in these interviews. Before conducting the interviews, a summary report based on the results of the online survey and individual interviews with carers, including areas proposed for the potential mHealth application, was distributed among the experts. All participants reported that managing needs related to functional disabilities were challenging for family carers. The experts claimed that barriers, challenges and difficulties that were highlighted by carers were common for family carers who provided care in the community. The experts agreed that the proposed content for the mHealth application was appropriate to address carers’ needs related to functional disability care. There was a concern, however, about the integration of a ‘chat room’ due to the need for continuous professional moderation, and this idea was, therefore, abandoned. In the co-design process, the triangulation of data from the needs assessment phase informed the content framework for the mHealth application. The application consists of three modules: (1) an overview of dementia and care, (2) managing daily living activities and (3) carers’ health and well-being. In addition to text information, currently available evidence-based online resources (websites, PDF articles and videos) were linked to the educational content. A nurse educator, an experienced geriatric nurse, a physician and two family carers reviewed the content. Readability of the content was checked based on the Flesch-Kincaid Readability Formula. Professional IT engineers developed an Android-based application using Java and Android Studio. Users can log into the application through a Google or Facebook login. The application was named the “Dementia Support for Carers app”. The application can be accessed through an Android-based smartphone or tablet. The co-design process helped to design and develop a new application for family carers based on the end user’s real-world experiences and the opinions and expertise of the stakeholders. However, before releasing this application into the App store, it is noted that testing of feasibility is essential. This thesis consists of seven chapters. Notably, chapters four to six present three published or submitted research articles reflecting the results of the online survey, interviews and the co-design process of the mHealth application, respectively. This dissertation does not include a traditional discussion chapter as each research article consists of a discussion of the results and the major findings of the study.

Sediments are complex environments that play an important role in the cycling of carbon, nutrients, and metals. Sediment biogeochemical processes are driven by microbial respiration and produce three major zones: the oxic zone, dominated by aerobic respiration and the presence of O2; the sub-oxic zone, dominated by anaerobic respiration and mildly reducing conditions with the presence of the reduced products of electron acceptors (NO2 -, N2, Fe(II), Mn(II)); and the anoxic zone, dominated by strongly reducing conditions, such as sulfide in coastal sediments. The inherent vertical distribution of these biogeochemical zones is dramatically modified by the presence of burrowing macro- and micro-invertebrates and benthic plants, introducing considerable heterogeneity. Therefore, in metabolically active heterogeneous sediment, the distance between the oxic and anoxic sulfidic layers may be as short as a few millimetres with differing biogeochemical zones occurring at the same depth, but in laterally separated locations. Iron(II) and sulfide distributions are useful indicators for determining the redox zonation and understanding the dominant biogeochemical processes occurring within the sediment. The diffusive equilibration in thin films (DET) and the diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) methods are in situ passive sampling methods. Combined colorimetric DET-DGT methods allow simultaneous measurement of iron(II) and sulfide in sediment pore waters and provide twodimensional (2D) distributions at high (mm) spatial resolution. In this thesis, the combined DETDGT techniques were applied in a range of coastal zone sediment habitats with high replication to investigate the influence of sediment heterogeneity on describing ‘typical’ biogeochemical distributions of iron(II) and sulfide. In this study, the degree of sediment heterogeneity was analysed quantitatively using texture analysis methods; gray level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) with the use of 2D iron(II) and sulfide distributions. The degree of sediment heterogeneity was also compared among different coastal zone sediment habitats. These measures confirmed that the benthic habitats were highly heterogeneous but were not able to provide much further distinction over qualitative analysis. The simplistic view of sediment biogeochemistry considered in conventional sediment pore water analysis is challenged by the complex heterogeneity of coastal zone sediment habitats. Traditional pore water sampling techniques require the removal and processing of sediment cores by slicing the collected cores at 0.5 cm or greater resolution and extraction of the pore waters by centrifugation or squeezing. This method mixes the pore water solutes and thus the measured concentrations represent an average of the sampled volume, at best. Therefore, these conventional pore water sampling and analysis methods simply cannot distinguish concentration changes over the small distances between oxic and anoxic microniches in the sediments. This thesis compares the capabilities and limitations of in situ passive sampling techniques (DET and DGT) and ex situ conventional sediment core sampling followed by centrifugation to measure iron(II), metal(loid)s, and sulfide concentrations in sediment pore waters. Ex situ conventional pore water analysis methods were not capable of reliably measuring redox– active pore water solutes in heterogeneous sediments due to the mixing of porewater solutes during the extraction process and substantially underestimated both iron(II) and sulfide concentrations in comparison to the DET-DGT method. The DGT measured metal(loid) concentrations were generally lower than the metal(loid) concentrations obtained by centrifugation extracted pore waters (except Fe and Ni) due to two reasons: 1) The non-labile metal fraction in sediment pore water, which is not measured by DGT, and 2) limited resupply of metal(loid)s from the solid phase to the solution phase. However, metal(loid) mobilisation/sequestration mechanisms were informed well by high-resolution (2 mm) DGT measurements. Mobilisation of metal(loid)s within aquatic sediments is associated with the biogeochemical processes of major redox active species present in marine sediments; iron(II), manganese(II) and sulfide. However, relating mobilisation of particular metal(loid)s to specific processes has been a challenge due to the limits of conventional methods. Simultaneous measurements of iron(II), metal(loid)s, and sulfide concentrations in sediment pore water at the same spatial location was facilitated by the use of triple layer combined DET-DGT probes. Mobilisation of metal(loid)s through the reductive mobilisation of Fe and Mn hydr(oxides) in the sub-oxic zone and sequestration of divalent metals with sulfide in anoxic deeper sediments were identified. The application of iron(II) DET and sulfide DGT methods in this and previous studies showed substantial overlaps between iron(II) and sulfide distributions. The simultaneous DET and DGT measurements may not be contemporary as DGT is a time-integrated technique and DET is an equilibration method that responds to the most recent conditions. A novel colorimetric 2D highresolution DET technique was developed for the measurement of dissolved sulfide distributions in sediment pore waters. This sulfide DET method limits the temporal averaging of sulfide measurements found with the sulfide DGT method and facilitates the contemporary measurement of sulfide co-distributions with other solutes such as iron(II). Field application of this method showed that the overlap between DET iron(II) and DET sulfide distributions was significantly lower than the average overlap between DET iron(II) and DGT sulfide.

This thesis assesses improvements to two types of control for a novel interior permanent magnet (PM) synchronous generator with fractional-slot, concentrated-wound stator designed for direct-drive wind energy conversion. The two control techniques assessed are a) field oriented control using a back-to-back converter arrangement and b) a current controller with a rectifier-connected boost converter. These were chosen to understand the potential and the limitations of the generator and its control. Modifications to the control techniques are proposed to improve the generator efficiency, the dynamic performance in the flux-weakening range and the torque ripple performance. The adequacy of the distributed-wound PM synchronous machine model for steady-state and dynamic control of this generator was experimentally validated under field oriented control using a back-to-back converter connected to the grid. The effectiveness of the existing current trajectory controls on the efficiency of the new generator was evaluated. A new flux-prioritized maximum torque per ampere technique which is independent of speed-dependent predefined trajectories was introduced, and a similar efficiency improvement was gained as the conventional loss minimization method in the partial load range. Thus, the control model validation and efficiency imrpovement of the new generator are the primary contributions. The dynamic performance of the generator, directly driven by a non-pitchable wind turbine emulator was investigated from cut-in speed to cut-out speed using maximum power point tracking and then constant power control above rated speed. A significant contribution was done in the power control above base wind speed that was achieved by utilizing the extended flux-weakening capability of the machine with its wide constant power-speed range. High torque ripple was observed when operated with a rectifier and boost converter using boost converter inductor current control. A new direct torque control technique using a machine rotor position based torque estimator was proposed to minimize this torque ripple. Eventhough the reduced torque ripple is still higher than that with back-to-back converter, the achieved ripple reduction is significant. The control of generator speed under each method is also demonstrated. Although the new method gives a faster speed dynamics than the conventional method, it shows slower speed response than that of back-to-back converter control. However, the significance of the study using a diode rectifier-connected boost converter control is highlighted with the achieved torque ripple minimization and performance enhancement of the generator. This study is expected to open new investigations in flux-weakening control of the PM generators using rectifier-connected boost converter. In this thesis, back to back converter control is demonstrated in order to optimally control the novel generator under the field oriented control, energy efficient current control and power control together with voltage control operating above rated speed. Torque ripple minimization of the generator is also presented when used with a diode rectifier-connected boost converter control.

In the past, lipid droplets were considered as inert cell organelles that store cellular energy in the form of neutral lipids. But today, they are known as cell organelles carrying out a myriad of functions required for the sustenance of life. The structure of intracellular lipid droplets closely resembles that of extracellular particles called lipoproteins. Both structures contain a core of neutral lipids surrounded by a monolayer of phospholipids and proteins. However, their functional roles within living organisms are different, ie, lipoprotein particles transport neutral lipids extracellularly in an organism’s circulatory system, whereas lipid droplets store neutral lipids intracellularly. These two structures differ in composition as well. However, literature shows that proteins found on the surface of lipoproteins and lipid droplets share a high degree of sequence and structural similarity. Although structural and functional details of lipoproteins and their components have been widely studied in the past, many structural and functional aspects of lipid droplets and their protein components are still unclear. This work describes the lipid binding properties of two structurally homologous proteins carrying amphipathic alpha helix bundles, apoLp-III and perilipin 3 which are found across two different biological systems, namely, lipoproteins in insects and lipid droplets in humans. Both these proteins are exchangeable in their lipid binding behavior. Studying the lipid interactions of the above proteins is of key importance to understand the basics of neutral lipid metabolism and lipid transport of multicellular organisms. Large quantities of recombinant proteins required for our biophysical characterization studies were expressed in E. coli cells and purified using a combination of chromatography techniques.In order to study the lipid interactions of apoLp-III and perilipin 3, we used Langmuir monolayers composed of various types of phospholipids. Our monolayer work revealed that apoLp-III by itself is a surface active protein and it appears to show a preference for saturated and highly ordered lipids. Consistent with earlier work we find that insertion of apoLp-III into fluid lipid monolayers is highest for diacylglycerol. The effective molecular shape of lipid molecules and the head group charge were also identified as important parameters that affect the lipid binding of ApoLp-III. We also investigated the interaction of full length perilipin 3 and three of its N-terminal truncation mutants with lipid monolayers. We observed that similar to apoLp-III, perilipin 3 is a surface active protein. The C-terminus of perilipin 3 shows strong preference for insertion into saturated, hence more-ordered lipid environments, similar to our previous data on apoLp-III. The C-terminal alpha helix bundle domain of perilipin 3 showed significantly different insertion properties compared to that of the full length protein and the other successively longer N-terminal truncation mutants. Addition of N-terminal sequences to the C-terminal alpha helix bundle domain reduced the lipid insertion ability of perilipin 3. Anionic lipids with negative spontaneous curvature facilitate lipid interaction and insertion of perilipin 3.Lipid monolayers created on the surface of hydrophobic planer chips (HPA) were used to study the kinetics of lipid binding interactions of apoLp-III and perilipin 3 through surface plasmon resonance. Our data show that for both apoLp-III and perilipin 3, lipid association and dissociation occur in a two –step process, suggesting conformational changes of the amphipathic alpha helices upon lipid interaction. These results thus shed important new insight into the protein–lipid interactions of a model exchangeable apolipoprotein with significant implications for its mammalian counterparts.

Despite its theoretical relevance, the notion of social media affordances has not permeated social media uses and gratifications studies. This has resulted in a need for research that focuses on developing affordance-based measures and testing them across user populations. Recognizing this need, Sundar (2008) and Sundar and Limperos (2013) suggested an affordance-based conceptual framework, known as the MAIN model, which can help develop potential measures of new media uses and gratifications. This study used the MAIN framework to develop an affordance-based scale for social media uses and gratifications and used it to characterize political actors, particularly dissidents and allegiants, and individuals with different levels of political tolerance and dogmatism. The first phase of the study focused on developing the social media uses and gratifications scale, using a convenience sample of 393 university students. The results of the first phase supported the conceptual accuracy of the MAIN model, indicating that conceptualizing social media uses and gratifications as a second-order factor structure that classifies social media uses and gratifications constructs into four different types of affordances (Modality, Agency, Interactivity, and Navigability) does not jeopardize the statistical validity of measures. The scale developed in the first phase was applied in the second phase to examine social media uses and gratifications that can characterize political actor types and levels of political dogmatism and tolerance. A sample of 313 American citizens above the age of 18, collected through a professional data collection service, was used to test five discriminant models to achieve this goal. The first three discriminant models showed that social media uses and gratifications can be used to classify political actor types with nearly 70% accuracy. However, the results painted a nuanced picture, indicating that social media uses and gratifications can describe differences as well as similarities between potential political dissidents and allegiants. While Realism, Coolness, and Agency-enhancement gratifications were common among dissidents and allegiants, dissidents showed significantly lower Filtering than allegiants. The fourth and fifth discriminant models also had more than 70% classification accuracy. According the last two models, uses and gratifications, such as Realism and Play, can characterize dogmatism, and Coolness, Filtering, and Browsing can indicate high political tolerance. The contribution of this dissertation research is two-fold. First, it suggests a potential affordance-based social media uses and gratifications scale that can be used in future research. Second, it suggests that, as opposed to the utopian perspective that social media are ideal platforms for alternative politics, they can cater to individuals engaged in both anti- and pro-system politics as well as politically dogmatic users.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) generation in sewer systems presents a significant cost to public due to metal and concrete corrosion and destruction of the asset and is responsible for obnoxious odour and potential toxicity. Several methods are adopted to control the corrosion. Most popular methods are dosing chemicals either to bind the H2S or to adjust pH to higher values to convert H2S to a form that will prevent the emission to air. Effectiveness and cost of these methods vary from researcher to researcher. Mainly due to the poor access system, fundamentals behind the effectiveness are not clear. Fundamentals are not properly understood because simulating the sewer system, especially partial flow sewer, is challenging due to exposure to atmosphere and a high flow velocity and hence there was no single laboratory model that was available to simulate conditions. The main objective of this research is: • To develop a laboratory testing system capable of generating H2S in similar conditions to a real sewer system • To evaluate various control measures of sulfate reduction in the sewer system • To understand the mechanism of H2S generation and control • Formulate a more cost-effective H2S control method • Development of the model To achieve the main objectives, a combination of two traditionally used methods –pH control using lime and ferrous chloride addition- were tested. Synthetic wastewater was fed into the reactor. Produced hydrogen sulfide concentrations were measured using the colorimetric method. Reduction of H2S in the gas phase was monitored with the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the liquid phase. The comparison of the existing hydrogen sulfide control methods with the tested combined method of pH adjustment and ferrous chloride dosing exhibited important benefits of the new method. This method was found to be more efficient and cost effective. Due to sludge reduction and chemical reduction, the treatment process (sludge treatment process) will be much easier in the downstream. The addition of ferrous chloride at higher pH reduced the gas phase H2S concentration even further as did the presence of oxygen. The discrepancy between actual H2S gas phase measurements and the theoretical gas phase values was identified. Silver nitrate titration using a silver electrode was used to identify the final products of the reactions. To further identify the sulphur species, a model using stoichiometric coefficients was developed and tested under various experimental conditions. It was noted, that SO42-, S2O32- , So and disulfide were the major species formed in the sewer with the variation of DO level and H2S level in the liquid phase. Formation of disulfide is advantageous, as it requires low DO level which may already exist in gravity sewers. In addition, the disulfide can not be converted back to gaseous form or processed by microbes into H2S. The findings of this work were used for the design of the proposed experimental and theoretical work. The data produced in the experimental work was used to develop a process model of the combined oxidation of H2S and reduction of its concentration in the sewer headspace. Such a model can be used to optimize H2S in a gravity sewer system, achieving the required gas concentration reduction at a minimum cost.

In order to properly evaluate the ecological and human health risks of ZnO Manufactured nanomaterials (MNMs) released to the environment, it is critical to understand the likely transformation products in the wastewater treatment process and in soils receiving biosolids. To address this critical knowledge gap, we examined the transformation reactions of 30 nm ZnO MNMs in single component and multi-component systems, with phosphate and natural organic matter (NOM). We also assessed the influence of nano ZnO transformation on the bioavailability, and toxicity of ZnO transformation products to Triticum aestivum. The data revealed that ZnO MNMs react with phosphate at concentrations expected in wastewater and transform into two distinct morphological/structural phases. A micron scale crystalline zinc phosphate phase (hopeite), and a nano-sized phase that likely consists of a ZnO core with a Zn3(PO4)2 rich shell. Presence of NOM reduces particle aggregation and enhances stability, regardless of the sequence of ligands addition in the aging scenarios. The presence of phosphate and NOM also altered the bioavailability and reduced the toxicity of the ZnO MNMs to Triticum aestivum.

Governments can use the internet to interact more with the public. New media applications are fast and cost-effective. Some studies done after 2000 view new forms of media positively, and consider the internet's ability to increase interactions between the public and policymakers. For example, Stanley and Weare (2004) challenge the studies that failed to prove the internet's ability to mobilize people. They claim that ―extending opportunities for participation can attract new voices, thereby changing decision makers' information environment (Stanley and Weare 2004, 503)." Governments and political activists use the internet increasingly in their activities. Ferber et al (2005) evaluated the interactivity of state legislature websites in the United States. While Ferber et al (2005, 85) mention that many state legislature websites are not very interactive, states attempt to direct their websites toward motivating public engagement than promoting interactivity. Governments should play an active role in developing electronic platforms to interact with the public. There is another side of the new media use. While official websites provide communication platforms for state agencies, citizens also use Facebook, Twitter, blogs and e-mail to interact among each other, and with policymakers. It is important to understand how both these aspects facilitate public engagement in order to increase future public participation.

Today's mobile devices increasingly contain multiple radios, enabling users on the move to take advantage of a heterogeneous wireless network environment. In addition, many bandwidth intensive services, such as podcasts or software updates are highly delay tolerant and memory in mobile devices is effectively unlimited. To take advantage of these technology trends, we propose EMUNE, a new transfer service architecture. EMUNE supports opportunistic bulk transfers in high bandwidth networks with intermittent availability. In addition, EMUNE can also satisfy a minimum data transfer rate, and dynamically adapt to application requirements and user preferences for quality and monetary/power costs. Our proposed architecture consists of an API, a prediction engine, a scheduling engine and a transport service. The API specifies what the transfer service offers, and how the service can be used by the applications. The prediction engine infers future network availability and their characteristics such as the available bandwidth for a time duration ahead. The scheduling engine takes the output of the prediction engine as well as the power and monetary costs of networks, application requirements and user preferences into account. It then determines which interface to use, when and for how long for all outstanding data transfer requests within that duration. The transport service accordingly executes the inferred data transfer schedule by assigning applications' data flows to the corresponding access networks. The architecture repeats this process for successive time durations, as long as there is data available to be transferred. In addition to presenting EMUNE, we provide a thorough evaluation of the architecture and its components using data of many real users, to show the effectiveness of EMUNE in improving the utilization of multiple network interfaces of mobile devices in a heterogeneous networking environment.

Since independence Sri Lanka has made impressive progress in reducing poverty. This reflects in terms of improvement in human development indicators as well as in consumption terms. Even though the progress in reducing consumption poverty has been impressive, substantial poverty still remains in Sri Lanka. The purpose of the research is to examine and evaluate the performance of welfare programs in Sri Lanka since 1979. Within this broad goal our specific objectives are to formulate important aspects of welfare programs in measurable terms and then estimate them using two alternative sources of Sri Lankan data. We compare the evolution of these attributes over time and across the three welfare programs that were in place during our period of study. We also examine if there is any correlation between increased government expenditure on welfare, and the efficiency of the programs, estimate the relative contribution of efficiency and spending, and suggest possible measures for improving the present system. The use of two sources of data where neither is expected to provide compelling conclusions has been motivated by the consideration that they would indicate the ranges over which the actual magnitudes may lie. The qualitative conclusions from the two exercises are mostly similar. The decline in the quantum of transfer needed for poverty alleviation over the period is common to both exercises. On the other hand the expenditure on transfer programs as a ratio of existing poverty gap is found to have increased steadily in both exercises. However, success of the programs, as measured by the reduction in poverty gap as a percentage of pre-transfer poverty gap, failed to match the decline in need and the progress in spending - as shown in both studies. This obviously points to the necessity of tightening the efficiency of the programs. Of particular concern is the estimated negative correlation between efficiency of the programs and an index of government transfers. It implies that parts of the transfer fail to produce results, not only because of the existing inefficiency, but also by somehow generating additional inefficiency in the system.