Search

There is an urgent need for effective and efficient technologies suitable for assessing the impacts of anthropogenic activity on biodiversity and ecosystem health. This project explores the potential of passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) for investigating the effects of different habitat management types on the activity and diversity of bats and birds. PAM is non-invasive, does not require line-of-sight and can monitor a wide variety of species. In order to record both audible and ultrasonic frequencies, custom recording devices were developed for this study (Chapter 2). The following specific questions were addressed: Chapter 3. How does the invasion of forest understorey by Rhododendron ponticum affect the activity of different bat species in comparison to areas where rhododendron is absent or has recently been removed? I found that effects of invasive rhododendron on native bat species vary according to their respective foraging strategy. In addition, some bat species were negatively affected by the presence of deer. Chapter 4. How do tree species richness and tree species composition affect acoustic diversity and activity of avian communities in temperate forests? Acoustic indices representing bird diversity demonstrated significant positive relationships with tree species richness, and relationships with some tree species. Some evidence that mixing broadleaves and conifers could benefit bird diversity was also found. Chapter 5. How do the different types of scrub created by rewilding using free-roaming mammalian herbivores differ in the activity levels of bird and bat communities? Bats with different foraging strategies demonstrated niche separation between the different habitats created by rewilding. Habitat characteristics also had significant effects on bird acoustic indices. This thesis demonstrates how PAM can be used to monitor the effects of different habitat managements on two different groups of taxa. However, further developments in analysis methods, particularly automated species identification, are necessary to realise its full potential.

We are experiencing a global biodiversity and climate crisis that is rapidly causing the extinction of species. Mammal species have been disproportionately affected; however, this trend is considerably worse in Australia. Since Australia’s occupation by Europeans, 34 mammal species have been declared extinct. Australian mammals in deserts are particularly at risk of extinction. Many arid zone mammals have specialised adaptations to their hostile, unpredictable ecosystems. For example, they use thermally insulative refuges, prefer habitats that reduce predation risk, or have large home ranges and broad diets to maximise energy intake. Understanding these adaptations is essential for informed conservation management. However, little ecological data is known for the sandhill dunnart, Sminthopsis psammophila, an endangered and charismatic marsupial that now remains within just a few natural refugial habitats in Australia’s southern deserts. To address conservation biology knowledge gaps, an integrated, evidence-based approach (i) quantified the diurnal and nocturnal ecology of S. psammophila in the Western Australian Great Victoria Desert (WAGVD), (ii) estimated the past, present and future distributions of S. psammophila throughout Australia, (iii) examined the key threats to S. psammophila - particularly wildfires and anthropogenic climate change - and (iv) proposed conservation management solutions for a) S. psammophila and b) sympatric arid zone species. Between 2015 and 2019, radio tracking and global positioning system (GPS) technologies examined the sheltering, foraging, dietary and habitat preferences of S. psammophila in the WAGVD. In contrast to its previously reported habitat preferences, S. psammophila preferred burrowing within long unburned (32+ years since a wildfire) spinifex (Triodia spp.) grassland habitats. Dense lower stratum swale, sand plain and dune slope habitats were preferred, whereas habitats lacking spinifex and open dune crest habitats were rarely used. Hence, wildfires were identified as a significant threat to the species. The sheltering preferences of S. psammophila agreed with the premise that small desert mammals often use shelters with thermal advantages and anti-predation benefits, such as burrows, Lepidobolus deserti hummocks and logs. Conversely, spinifex hummocks were not found to be insulative against extreme temperatures and were not preferred. The foraging adaptations of S. psammophila agreed with the premise that arid zone species often have large home ranges to exploit resource patches or islands. The 100 % home ranges of S. psammophila [mean: 70 ha; range: 6-274 ha; minimum convex polygon (MCP)] were influenced by sex and reproductive status. In addition, a Formicine-rich diet indicated that ants are an important dietary resource for S. psammophila. Species distribution models (SDMs) predicted the past, present, and future distributions of S. psammophila, evaluated the environmental parameters that determine the species’ distribution and identified habitats of high conservation value. The past model supported evidence that S. psammophila was widespread but has recently contracted to more climatically favourable areas of its geographic range. Ground-validation of the present model’s predictions discovered a population 150 km north of the species’ known range. Future models identified that climate change is a potential catastrophic threat for S. psammophila. By 2050, under Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 8.5 (our current pathway) there is a predicted 95 % reduction in suitable habitat for S. psammophila in the WAGVD. By 2070 (RCP 8.5), only the Eyre Peninsula population may remain viable and the continental distribution of S. psammophila may contract by up to 80 %. However, this contraction is predicted to be halved if global greenhouse gas emissions peak in 2040 then reduce (RCP 4.5). Due to specific habitat preferences for long unburned habitats, S. psammophila is further restricted within its climatically and geographically suitable range. As a semi-arid specialist, it is also vulnerable to drought-related population crashes. Hence, S. psammophila should remain listed as endangered at the state and federal level, and its status should be revised by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

Plantations are widespread throughout temperate regions, and the area of plantation land cover is predicted to get larger in the future. Interest in ensuring sustainable plantation management is also growing, as it is increasingly recognised that productive areas should play a role in biodiversity conservation. Plantation landscapes can comprise the majority of forested cover in some countries, but taxon-specific guidance can be lacking, due to plantations often being under surveyed. Therefore, despite substantial incentives existing to ensure that plantations meet various ecological criteria, plantation managers lack the information necessary to implement effective management plans. Many bat species have undergone widespread declines in recent decades, attributed to habitat loss and fragmentation, particularly of forested habitat. In many temperate countries, historical deforestation has resulted in very low native tree cover, and subsequently, considerable replanting with non-native commercial coniferous plantations has taken place. Species specific habitat surveys have often demonstrated avoidance of conifer plantations by bats, which has been attributed to a lack of roosts and low invertebrate prey abundance. Furthermore, widespread lepidopteran declines have been partly attributed to afforestation with non-native conifer, but moth associations with commercial coniferous plantations are usually only studied for pest species. Bats present a particular challenge in plantation landscapes; tree cover is important to many species to a greater or lesser extent, and in the United Kingdom, destruction of a roost site is illegal, regardless of whether it was deliberate or accidental. However, the extent to which bats associate with non-native commercial plantations is relatively unexplored. This is the first study to explicitly test bat associations with Picea sitchensis plantations (using acoustic detectors, trapping and radio tracking), and shows that, contrary to expectations, they may be an important habitat for breeding populations of Pipistrellus spp., particularly P. pygmaeus. High levels of activity were recorded for both P. pygmaeus and P. pipistrellus, despite little difference in dipteran abundance between different stand types, both species preferentially foraged in felled or less dense stands. This suggests that bats preferentially forage in areas with less acoustic and physical clutter, which will increase foraging efficiency. The impacts of felling in non-native commercial coniferous plantations on foraging activity was tested, for the first time, using a Before – After – Control – Impact experimental design. Bat activity (specifically P. pipistrellus and Nyctalus) increased after felling, particularly in smaller stands. In contrast felling had significant, negative impacts on moth abundance, species richness and diversity, and these effects remain after constraining for functional trait similarity. Reductions in richness and diversity in response to felling were similarly large for both rare and abundant species. Therefore, while bats may benefit from clear fell practices, albeit as long as the size of patches is small, moth populations could benefit from a shift towards other forestry methods, iv such as continuous cover forestry. These results also have implications for the recent, but increasing practice of siting wind turbines in commercial coniferous plantations, as pre-installation preparation involves clearing small patches of forest which may attract foraging bats; post felling monitoring should be carried out to examine potential impacts on bat populations. The presence of broadleaf trees in and around plantations significantly increased moth richness, mostly through increased occurrence of rare species. Broadleaf woodlands (defined as land spanning more than 0.5 ha, with trees higher than 5m and a combined cover of shrubs, bushes and trees above 10%), also had higher functional redundancy than plantation sites. For a diverse moth population to persist in plantation landscapes, preserving remnant patches of broadleaf trees is essential. There was little difference in bat activity between broadleaf woodlands and plantation sites. However, bat abundance, particularly that of reproductively active females, was greater in broadleaf sites compared to plantations. This was particularly true for Myotis and Nyctalus spp., very few of which were trapped in commercial plantations. Therefore, although reproductively active female Myotis bats are present in the surrounding landscape, they do not appear to associate with plantations themselves. This may reflect a lack of roost availability; both P. pygmaeus and P. pipistrellus preferentially form large maternity colonies in buildings, but for Myotis and Nyctalus spp. which roost switch regularly and often use trees, it is unlikely many suitable roosts exist within the plantations themselves. Many substantial P. pygmaeus maternity colonies were identified in and around Galloway forest, with some holding more than 500 individuals. All maternity colonies were in buildings, and most inhabited (and one uninhabited) buildings within the plantation contained a roost. Although females occasionally used old or dead deciduous trees as temporary roosts, there was no evidence of roosting in crop trees such as P. sitchensis. During this study, the Forestry Commission installed 36 bat boxes; within 6 months over 90% had been used, with a number of harems found inside. This fast uptake compared with bat use of boxes in other locations reflects the paucity of appropriate structures for either roost or harem use in commercial plantations. Twelve bats were captured while foraging, tagged with small radio transmitters, and followed for between 2 and 6 nights during 2014 and 2015. All but one tagged female preferentially foraged within the plantation, with individuals selecting equally riparian habitats and felled stands. Tagged females which roosted furthest from the plantation had the largest home ranges; one individual flew nearly 40km each night to reach foraging areas distant from her roost, suggesting that the food availability within the plantation was sufficient to render such a long journey energetically viable. v These results have important implications for bat populations in and around commercial coniferous plantations. Far from being avoided by bats, plantation landscapes may constitute an important habitat type for both P. pygmaeus and P. pipistrellus, likely due to the high abundance of nematoceran diptera in plantation woodlands. Furthermore, plantation forests support a similar richness of moth species to urban and agricultural woodlands, including a number of declining species of special conservation concern. A list of management recommendations to benefit both bat and moth populations in commercial plantations is presented at the end of this thesis.

Pollinators are globally important for maintaining the health of our agricultural systems and facilitating plant reproduction, and understanding how they respond to the dual threats of climate change and habitat destruction is essential for our ability to conserve their populations. We have a basic understanding of how pollinators respond to habitat loss and increasing temperatures, but we know less about how habitat management can be used to mitigate their response to the detrimental effects of climate change. Managing a natural community for biodiversity can provide thermal resources in the form of patches of sun and shade or potential thermal refugia for ectothermic pollinators to utilize as they experience thermal stress from climate change.Here, I aim to understand how bees and other floral visitors utilize thermal and foraging resources over a range of varying canopy cover. I measured floral visitation rates to black-eyed Susan plants placed in sunlit and shaded patches at 15 different sites at Kitty Todd Nature Preserve in Swanton, OH. I recorded both different environmental and surface temperatures to investigate drivers of bee body temperature, which I also measured.We found significantly more bees visited plants placed in sunlit than in shaded patches (X2 = 12.361, df = 1, pboot = 0.005). With higher floral surface temperatures and higher light intensities, we recorded higher levels of bee visitation. Bee body temperature was best related to abaxial (underside) leaf surface temperature among all the thermal metrics that we measured, with higher body temperatures at higher abaxial temperatures.My results show the importance of maintaining open areas within a matrix of wooded habitat for bees and other pollinators, although shady patches may become more important in other contexts. Light intensity may be one of the more important factors driving both surface temperature variation and preference by bees for sunny areas over shaded ones. These results, as well as those relating to bee body temperature, indicate that efforts to conserve bee populations should be informed by thermal resources in addition to more frequently researched floral and nesting resources.

The past two decades have witnessed an unprecedented decline in Lepidopteran species, with more than a third of the UK’s butterflies now either considered threatened, or already lost from the country. The vulnerable marsh fritillary, Euphydryas aurinia, after a long term loss in the UK of 73% in abundance, has become an almost iconic species as the target of many well-funded conservation projects across the UK. Despite extensive ecological studies, populations of E. aurinia are shown in Chapter 2 to still be declining in south-west UK even after recommended management strategies have been implemented. This necessitates the need for prompt research beyond that of management requirements and butterfly habitat preferences. In Chapter 3, microsatellite markers (EST-SSRs) were developed for E. aurinia and using these markers in Chapter 4, it is shown that E. aurinia populations in southern UK and Catalonia, Spain, are severely genetically differentiated at all geographical scales, and genetically depauperate, causing huge concerns for the conservation of this enigmatic and ecologically important species. Dispersal is fundamental to metapopulation existence and survival. Phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI – an enzyme in the glycolysis pathway) is a well-endorsed candidate gene for dispersal, extensively studied in the Glanville fritillary (Melitaea cinxia) and Orange Sulphur (Colias eurytheme). In Chapter 5, an analysis across 27 sites in the UK discovered six non-synonymous SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) within PGI. A single charge-changing SNP of interest showed no evidence of balancing selection, contrary to findings in M. cinxia, instead appearing to be neutral when analysed alongside microsatellite markers developed in Chapter 3. No link was found between genotype and flight, morphology or population trend. These findings challenge the emerging perspective that PGI could be used as an adaptive molecular marker for arthropods. Wolbachia are endosymbiotic bacteria capable of dramatically altering the reproductive system of their host. In Chapter 6, a PCR-based diagnostic in conjunction with MLST (multi-locus sequence typing) identified 100% prevalence of a single strain of Wolbachia across all sampled E. aurinia populations in the UK. Total prevalence suggests that Wolbachia probably has little phenotypic impact on its host, but the potential impacts of this endosymbiont on uninfected populations should be considered during any management plans for the conservation of E. aurinia. Current management plans will need to incorporate all areas of research, from basic ecological requirements to molecular adaptation and unseen manipulators of host biology, to be able to fully and effectively conserve declining fragmented species.

Agricultural intensification has been driving declines in avian biodiversity across the globe, however, research has shown that human-managed agriculture lands can provide habitat and resources to avifauna in addition to supporting sustainable avian populations. Coffee agroforestry has been spotlighted as an agroecological system that supports the abundance and richness of avifauna, though there is limited research on whether these systems support breeding populations and how management decisions impact avian nest success. This study seeks to fill gaps in the literature by comparing avian reproducible success in a shaded coffee farm and a neighboring sun-grown coffee farm. It investigates whether differences in habitat heterogeneity impact nesting success by measuring canopy cover, and vertical structure, and constructing a complexity index. It was hypothesized that the less intensely managed shaded coffee agroforestry system would have a higher probability of daily nest success than the more intensely managed sun-grown coffee. Results from this study found that nests in the agroforestry system (n=25) had a 5% higher daily nest survival rate than nests found in the sun-grown coffee system (n=18). Additionally, results suggest a negative correlation between vertical structure surrounding the nest and the success of nests, implying a trade-off between nest concealment and risk of failure.

Orthohantaviruses are a global group of viruses found primarily in rodents, though several viruses have also been found in shrews and moles. Many rodent-borne orthohantaviruses are capable of causing one of several diseases in humans, and the mortality associated with these diseases ranges from < 0.1% - 50% depending on the specific etiological virus. In North and South America, orthohantavirus research was ignited by an outbreak of severe disease in the Four Corners region of the United States in 1993. However, despite the discovery of over 20 orthohantaviruses in the Americas, our understanding of orthohantavirus ecology and virus-host dynamics in this region is still limited, and orthohantavirus surveillance is generally restricted in scope to select regions and small portions of host distributional ranges. In Chapter I, I present a literature review on the current understanding of American rodent-borne orthohantavirus ecology. This review focused on under-studied orthohantaviruses, addressing gaps in knowledge by extrapolating information from well-studied orthohantaviruses, general rodent ecology, and occassionally from Eurasian orthohantavirus-host ecology. There were several key conclusions generated from this review that warrant further research: 1) the large number of putative orthohantaviruses and gaps in orthohantavirus evolution necessitate further surveillance and characterization, 2) orthohantavirus traits differ and are more generalizable based on host taxonomy rather than geography, and 3) orthohantavirus host species are disproportionately found in grasslands and disturbed habitats. In Chapter II, I present a prioritized list of rodent species to target for orthohantavirus surveillance based on predictive modeling using machine learning. Probable orthohantavirus hosts were predicted based on traits of known orthohantavirus hosts using two different types of evidence: RT-PCR and virus isolation. Predicted host distributions were also mapped to identify geographic hotspots to spatially guide future surveillance efforts. In Chapter III, I present a framework for understanding and predicting orthohantavirus traits based on reservoir host phylogeny, as opposed to the traditional geographic dichotomy used to group orthohantaviruses. This framework establishes three distinct orthohantavirus groups: murid-borne orthohantaviruses, arvicoline-borne orthohantaviruses, and non-arvicoline cricetid-borne orthohantaviruses, which differ in several key traits, including the human disease they cause, transmission routes, and virus-host fidelity. In Chapter IV, I compare rodent communities and orthohantavirus prevalence among grassland management regimes. Sites that were periodically burned had high rodent diversity and a high proportion of grassland species. However, rodent seroprevalence for orthohantavirus was also highest in burned sites, representing a trade-off in habitat management outcomes. The high seroprevalence in burned sites is likely due to the robust populations supported by the high quality habitat resulting from prescribed burning. In Chapters V and VI, I describe Ozark virus and Sager Creek virus, two novel orthohantaviruses discovered from specimens collected during Chapter IV. Both chapters report full genome sequences of the respective viruses and compare both nucleotide and protein phylogenies with related orthohantaviruses. Additionally in Chapter VI, I support the genetic analyses with molecular and ecological characterizations, including seasonal fluctuations in host abundance, correlates of prevalence, evidence of virus shedding, and information on host cell susceptibility to Sager Creek virus.

Ecosanctuaries offer a potential solution for protecting New Zealand’s threatened indigenous wildlife by providing a ‘safe haven’ from predators and a breeding ground. Inevitably, wildlife will spread, or halo, out into the wider landscape requiring us to look beyond the fence. With increased pressure to develop land for residential purposes, this research explores how landscape architects can support ecosanctuaries through the spatial design of new residential subdivisions located within the halo of mainland New Zealand ecosanctuaries. A literature review of overseas conservation-oriented eco-estates in South Africa and conservation subdivisions in the United States unwraps strategies used in each that help inform the spatial design of new subdivisions in the New Zealand context. In addition, case studies of three ring-fenced mainland New Zealand ecosanctuaries and interviews with key employees identify the aspirations behind ecosanctuaries and reveal what needs to be done within the broader landscape to support their success. This research suggests that through the halo effect, ecosanctuaries influence the wider environment. In turn, the spatial design of the wider landscape affects the conservation success of ecosanctuaries. The findings show that beyond the fence, safe, quality and functionally connected habitat is required. By taking an ecosystem approach and ensuring careful spatial design at the ‘landscape’, ‘subdivision’, and ‘backyard/homeowner’ scales, landscape architects can help ensure the long-term success of ecosanctuaries as a conservation model. Based on findings from the research a checklist is provided listing strategies that can be used to inform the spatial design of new residential subdivisions within the halo of New Zealand ecosanctuaries.

Early-successional habitats are a critical habitat type for Ruffed Grouse (Bonasa umbellus) and Golden-winged Warblers (Vermivora chrysoptera). In the Southern Blue Ridge Ecoregion, early-successional habitats have declined over the last 70 years, and the extent of which Ruffed Grouse and Golden-winged Warblers occupy these habitats at the edge of their ranges is unknown. Understanding the factors that drive the presence or absence of these species in this region is critical to inform quality management of early-successional forests. Additionally, increased knowledge of these species will likely benefit other species of conservation concern that rely on early-successional forests, such as the Prairie Warbler (Setophaga discolor), Common Yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas), Field Sparrow (Spizella pusilla), and Chestnut-sided Warbler (Setophaga pensylvanica). In this study, I examined multi-scale habitat factors to determine specific drivers of presence or absence of Ruffed Grouse, Golden-winged Warblers, and habitat indicator species. Additionally, I employed both human-observer and autonomous recording unit surveys to determine the efficacy of the two methodologies. This study represents the largest known effort to inventory Ruffed Grouse and Golden-winged Warblers in the state of South Carolina. I found low Ruffed Grouse and Golden-winged Warbler occupancy rates across two seasons, indicating the need for both robust monitoring protocols and targeted habitat management for the benefit of these species. My results indicate unique habitat preferences of Ruffed Grouse in the Southern Blue Ridge Ecoregion. Additionally, my results provide insight into multiple parameters that drive early-successional songbird species occupancy. This project provides information that will aid in both habitat management and conservation of high priority early-successional avian species. This project also provides context for efficient monitoring protocols.

Agricultural expansion and increasing urbanization are driving rapid landscape modification in the Tallgrass prairies ecosystem and are affecting biodiversity at multiple spatial scales. Thus, the conservation of fragmented grassland and steeply declining grassland avifauna is dependent on the relationship between local- and landscape-scale factors and avian assemblage. We also need to understand how these factors, operating at different spatial scales, drive the occupancy of different guilds in the assemblage. We conducted repeated point count surveys during the breeding season of 2019 at 66 grassland sites across Arkansas and Missouri, USA. We developed a multi-species occupancy model to estimate species richness, and species- and guild-specific occupancy probability while accounting for species-specific detection probabilities. We examined the effect of landscape elements: type of landcover around a site, area and shape of a fragment and local-level elements: habitat type (remnant prairie/ hayfield), proximity to trees, and vegetation composition and structure on avian assemblage and guild-specific occupancy probability. Overall, we found that factors operating at landscape-scale have a significant effect on overall richness and composition of avian assemblage and guild-specific occupancy probability. The avian assemblage richness was higher for heterogenous landscape, small patches, and patches with more edge habitat which was a result of lower proportion of habitat specialists (grassland obligate) and higher proportion of habitat generalists. For grassland obligate species, high grassland cover, low forest cover, large patch area, less edge habitat, and lower litter depth had strong positive effects on their occupancy and guild-level species richness at a site. For grassland facultative species, high development around a site, small patch, high edge habitat, and lower litter depth had strong positive effects on their occupancy and guild-level species richness at a site. For woodland species, low grassland cover and high forest cover around a site, small patch, and high edge habitat had strong positive effects on their occupancy and guild-level species richness. Collectively, our results indicate that response to local- and landscape-scale factors varies between the guilds and habitat specialists are negatively affected by habitat fragmentation. Conservation efforts should focus on conserving landscapes, large tracts of prairies, minimize woody encroachment, reduce edge habitat and maintain heterogenous vegetation structure to mitigate grassland bird decline.

Habitat loss and degradation are the leading causes of grassland bird declines worldwide. The Henslow’s Sparrow (Centronyx henslowii; hereafter HESP) is a grassland bird species of conservation concern that has historically relied on the herbaceous ground-layer of longleaf pine savannas and similar habitats in the southeastern U.S. for food and shelter in the winter. However, due to human development, alterations of habitat, and fire suppression, only fragments of these habitats remain. Over the last decade, surveys have annually documented HESPs using power line right-of-ways (hereafter, ROWs) at several sites in the coastal plain of Georgia as alternative habitat for overwintering. These ROWs share similar vegetative characteristics to pine savannas because they are managed to have low tree cover and because they have a graminoid-dominated ground-layer. However, which micro-habitat characteristics HESPs select, and how much space they use within ROWs has not yet been studied. During the winters of 2019 to 2021, I captured HESPs at three Wildlife Management Areas and attached radio-transmitters to track their habitat selection and evaluate space use within ROWs. I conducted vegetation surveys in used and available habitat in the ROWs to assess which vegetation characteristics (e.g., height, density, composition) HESPs select. I used principal component analysis to reduce the number of vegetation variables and look for correlations among variables. I then used conditional logistic regression and model selection to identify top predictors of HESP habitat use. Statistical analyses showed that HESPs select areas within a ROW with a greater number of forb species, a small percentage of woody vegetation for escape refugia, and high vegetation density at the ground level. HESPs used less space (using 0.14 ha on average) than in longleaf pine savanna habitats, based on comparison with the literature. Based on these findings, I recommend habitat management practices that promote forb diversity, increase food resources, and maintain habitat structure. This study shows that ROWs can be important areas for conservation of overwintering HESPs. With continued management, ROWs can support overwintering grassland birds and could potentially act as corridors between longleaf pine restoration sites.

Keystone structure is the spatial structure required by a given species, at a scale that is determined by that species’ needs and mobility. The endangered Karner blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis, hereafter KBB) has a keystone structure that incorporates trees and bushes to provide the mixture of sun and shade required to fulfil its life functions. Airborne light detection and ranging (lidar) is a potentially invaluable tool for characterizing keystone structures. However, lidar has yet to be utilized to evaluate structural suitability of KBB habitats. Therefore, I investigated the use of lidar for characterizing critical attributes of KBB habitat structure, and its use in the evaluation of management practices. Structural diversity was summarized from lidar using two approaches: one that attempted to test the canopy cover criteria used in the field-based Glacial Lake Albany habitat mapping (hereafter GLA heterogeneity), and a second based on the texture of the lidar-derived canopy cover imagery. These lidar-derived measures were calculated at five scales, using kernels (moving windows) with areas of 0.05 ha to 19.2 ha. The lidar heterogeneity measures derived at 0.9 ha or less were highly correlated with density of field observations of KBB presence, with the highest correlation at 0.2 ha. Larger kernels were poorly correlated with KBB presence. Notably, the 0.9 ha scale corresponds to more than 75% of KBB mobility range observations, as reported in a previous field study. GLA heterogeneity was also found to be consistently more correlated with KBB observations than the texture measure. The criteria used to establish the four GLA heterogeneity classes appear to be useful, based on rank correlation relationships with the classes were combined or evaluated individually. The 0.2 ha kernel GLA heterogeneity was used to evaluate the effects of prescribed burning on structural suitability, and was found to be significantly correlated with burn intensity.

Achieving long-term conservation gains through the framework of conservation incentive programs requires an understanding of both the ecological and social components of these programs. Landowner program experiences and management decisions after program participation are important for long-term conservation, but these aspects of conservation programs are not well understood. To address this research gap related to conservation program participation, this thesis investigates Natural Resources Conservation Service programs that provide private landowners with financial and technical assistance to manage for young forest habitat in the eastern United States. We conducted a telephone survey to investigate private landowner experiences during and after participation in these NRCS conservation programs. Coordinating with biologists monitoring managed properties for birds, we assessed how in-person outreach and mailed monitoring results influenced landowners. Next, we evaluated how landowner motivations, resources, and cognitions were related to post-program young forest management intentions. Finally, we applied a coupled human and natural systems lens to investigate the linkage between wildlife outcomes, landowner perceptions, and continued young forest management. Our results demonstrate how in-person outreach can shape positive conservation experiences and increasing landowner trust in resource agencies. We also demonstrate the importance of both social and environmental factors for influencing landowner decision-making after conservation program participation. We detail the applications of this research for conservation agencies and professionals who work with private landowners.

Northern bobwhite populations have declined range-wide over the past 40 years. The intensification of agriculture, conversion of pastures to nonnative cool-season grasses, advanced succession, and urbanization have resulted in the deterioration and elimination of bobwhite habitat. Recent conservation efforts have called for a landscape-level approach to the conservation of northern bobwhite populations. However, identifying large areas to manage bobwhite populations is problematic. Reclaimed mine lands offer an opportunity to manage large contiguous tracts of early successional vegetation to conserve northern bobwhite populations. We studied northern bobwhite resource selection throughout the year from August 2009 to March 2014. We investigated the influence of disking, prescribed fire, and herbicide application on bobwhite resource selection. Our study was conducted on Peabody Wildlife Management Area (PWMA), which is a 3,300 ha reclaimed surface mine in Western Kentucky. We used the discrete-choice analysis to compare resource selection on unmanaged and managed units of PWMA. We used locations from 283 bobwhite during the breeding season (1 April – 30 September) and 136 coveys during the non-breeding season (1 October – 31 March). Resource selection on PWMA was influenced most by availability of shrub cover, regardless of season. Bobwhite were found closer to shrub cover than would be expected and selected areas with greater amounts of shrub-open edge density. Similarly, bobwhite selected areas with vegetation characteristics consistent with shrub cover on PWMA, including increased visual obstruction >1 m aboveground and an increased density of woody stems. Management aimed at reducing the density of sericea lespedeza and increasing the openness at ground level positively influenced resource selection. Bobwhite were found closer to disked areas than would be expected and selected areas treated with herbicide to control sericea lespedeza. Bobwhite avoided burned areas during the breeding season but selected burned areas during the non-breeding season. Our results suggest management should focus on increasing the interspersion of shrub cover on reclaimed mine lands. Also, management focused on enhancing the composition and structure of the vegetation (disking and herbicide) should continue. Reclaimed mine land can provide habitat for northern bobwhite, and our results suggest habitat management can improve habitat quality for bobwhite on these lands.

Livestock grazing may negatively impact bird nesting in wetland habitats. This study evaluated the effect of grazing on the nests of the Oriental pratincole (Glareola maldivarum) along the grassland of a wetland at six study sites with different densities of grazing cattle and buffalo. Species richness, density, cover, and height of vegetation in the study areas were different (P < 0.05). The density of cattle and buffalo at the various sites affected vegetation composition and amount, which in turn influenced bird nest density. The estimated trampling rates, number of fledglings, and number of trampled eggs were different among study sites (P < 0.05). The density of cattle and buffalo has an influence on nest failure rates. The factors that influenced the mortality rates of the Oriental pratincole were trampling and unhatched eggs. Only 48.5% of the nests were successful at sites where cattle and buffalo continuously grazed in the grasslands at high densities. Thus, increases in the density of cattle and buffalo will reduce the number of nests of the Oriental pratincole, which may result in a reduction of the overall population in the future

Pumpkins (Cucurbita pepo) rely on insect-mediated pollination, and host a distinct community of pests, natural enemies and pollinators. My goal was to determine if biocontrol and pollination services in pumpkins were affected by local habitat management and landscape composition in Ohio. I measured biocontrol through predation and parasitism rates of sentinel egg cards of squash bug (Anasa tristis) and the spotted cucumber beetle (Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardii), and collected adults of striped cucumber beetle (Acalymma vittatum) to determine parasitism activity in 2011-2012. I used pitfall traps to determine the activity density of ground-dwelling predators per field per sample period, and video cameras to determine the taxa responsible for egg mortality. I measured visitation frequency and duration of Apis mellifera, Bombus spp., and Peponapis pruinosa in male and female flowers of pumpkins in 2011-2012, and pollen deposition across the pollination window (0600-1200 hr) in 2012. I tested the Intermediate Landscape-Complexity Hypothesis in one year by determining the combined effects of surrounding landscape composition and local habitat management on the relative visit frequency of pollinators, activity density of predators, and rates of predation and parasitism services by ranking general linear mixed models. I found that only D. undecimpunctata experienced a significant amount of egg predation, which was positively correlated to the percentage of field crops within a 1500 m radius of pumpkin fields. The parasitism of A. vittatum and the visitation frequency of A. mellifera was diluted in the presence of fruit and vegetable habitats within a 1500 m radius, and P. pruinosa visit frequency was diluted within a 500 m radius. Parasitism of A. vittatum was positively associated with urban habitats within a 500 m radius, and the visit frequency of P. pruinosa was positively associated with urban habitats within a 1500 m radii. Predation of A. tristis and D. undecimpunctata eggs and parasitism of A. vittatum adults were not significantly affected by the addition of annual non-native floral insectaries of sweet alyssum (Lobularia maritima) or a perennial native insectary planted adjacent to the crop. Formicidae were the largest contributor to egg predation, and also responded positively to urban habitats. Activity density of Carabidae and Orthoptera captured in pitfalls located in alyssum insectaries increased with higher percentages of mowed turfgrass habitats.In 2011 A. mellifera was more abundant in flowers than other bees, and in 2012 Bombus spp. was the most abundant. A. mellifera spent more time in flowers, and had a higher visit frequency in female flowers. In both years, Bombus spp. had a significantly higher visit frequency after 0700 hr, and both Bombus spp. and P. pruinosa spent less time in flowers after 0800 hr. Pollen loads on female flowers indicated that the majority of pollen deposited across the 6 hr window was transferred between 0600-0800 hr, which is when all three bee species foraged with equal frequency and similar visit duration, though Bombus spp. was the largest contributor. Alyssum and perennial floral insectaries did not have an effect on the foraging activity of bees. However, visits to pumpkins by A. mellifera showed that pumpkin fields close to an increased percentage of forest habitats supported higher visit frequencies to pumpkins with alyssum floral insectaries.

Golden-winged Warbler (Vermivora chrysoptera) populations in Appalachia have declined precipitously over the past 45 years. The primary objective of my study was to monitor the response of Golden-winged Warblers to prescribed fire treatments on reclaimed coal mines in the North Cumberland Wildlife Management Area, Tennessee. Presence-absence surveys were conducted on eight mountain-top study sites and nest searching/monitoring was conducted on two additional sites, 2009-2011. I expanded on previous research of Golden-winged Warbler territory and nest-site selection by determining differences within main effects between used and unused territory plots, as well as used and unused nest-sites. Of my two nest-searched sites, Ash Log and Massengale Mountains, only Massengale received annual prescribed fire treatments, 2007-2011. Thus, analysis was conducted separately for these two study sites. I also modeled the effects of fire history, as well as temporal and biotic factors, on the variation in daily nest survival rates (DSR). I documented a population increase on Massengale, and no change on four sites. Population decline on three unmanaged sites was correlated with a decrease in shrub and/or Rubus spp. cover, and an increase in sapling height. Territories contained more shrub cover >1 m in height on Massengale and Rubus spp. cover was greater inside territories than on unused plots on Ash Log. No nest-plot variables differed between nest and non-nest plots. The best-supported model of DSR included the effect of year, quadratic time, and the presence of Rubus spp. in nesting substrate. Nesting success was highly variable across years; 10.8 ± 5.4% in 2009, 57.5 ± 8.8% in 2010, and 29.3 ± 10.0% in 2011. With respect to time, nest survival was greatest during peak of nest initiation in early May, declined through the middle of the nesting season, and increased again through the latter half of the season (27 June). Nest success decreased with the presence of Rubus spp. in the nesting substrate. I detected no negative relationship between daily nest survival and fire history. My study suggests that prescribed burning on reclaimed coal mining land is a viable management practice for the creation and maintenance of Golden-winged Warbler breeding habitat.

A field study was conducted in 2004 and 2005 to compare pest and beneficial insect populations in conventional and organic cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), and organic cotton with managed habitat. A "conventional" (best management practices) control was compared with two organic treatments - one with and one without habitat borders. The habitat treatment consisted of an organic cotton plot bordered and bisected by a 3 m wide mixed planting of soybean (Glycine max), German foxtail millet (Setaria italica), and buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench). Pest and beneficial insect populations were monitored by methods appropriate to the developmental stage of the cotton and pest species populations. Thrips were sampled beginning at cotyledonary stage and were sampled on four dates each in 2004 and 2005. Weekly sweep net samples were taken to monitor pest and beneficial insect populations on eight dates in 2004 and ten dates in 2005. Pest insects recorded included adults and immatures of green stink bug Acrosternum hilare (Say), Southern green stink bug Nezara viridula (Linnaeus), brown stink bug Euschistus servus (Say), tarnished plant bug Lygus lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois) and bollworm Helicoverpa zea. Predatory species recorded were adult Dolichopodidae, larvae of Corydalidae and Hemerobiidae, spiders, adults and immatures of Orius spp., Geocoris spp., predatory Coccinellidae, and Nabidae. Observation of the fate of naturally oviposited H. zea eggs was used as a measure of egg parasitism and predation. The level of parasitism of brown stink bug (Euschistus servus) eggs was evaluated by gluing E. servus egg masses to cotton leaves in the field and recording levels of parasitism. Cotton terminals, squares, and bolls were monitored for H. zea eggs, larvae, and damage. Internal damage to cotton bolls by hemipteran pests was recorded. Organic or conventional insecticides were applied if necessary for control of key cotton pests. Orius spp. means were significantly higher in the organic treatment than the conventional control. Lady beetles and L. lineolaris means, averaged over both years, were significantly higher in both organic treatments than the conventional control. There was no treatment effect in predator plot means in the pitfall study or in levels of H. zea egg predation and parasitism in the H. zea egg fate study. There was no treatment effect in the level of E. servus egg parasitism. H. zea larvae and H. zea-damaged bolls were higher in both organic treatments than conventional cotton. Damage to bolls by hemipteran pests was higher in both organic treatments than the conventional control. Organic cotton had higher densities of two predators: lady beetles and Orius spp. However, organic cotton had more damage from pests. Presence of habitat did not increase the number of beneficial insects, decrease the number of pests, or reduce damage in adjacent cotton.

The Florida mouse (Podomys floridanus), a species restricted to the Lake Wales Ridge and the Atlantic Coastal Ridge, is recognized by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission as a species of special concern, highlighting its status as a species that is threatened by habitat loss statewide. Publicly owned lands offer protection for the species, but management is generally focused on protecting biodiversity in general and not a particular species. The response of the Florida mouse to land management practices such as mechanical treatment and prescribed fires is poorly documented. This research examined the population responses of Florida mice on three public lands in central Florida, namely, Bullfrog Creek Mitigation Park in Hillsborough County, Split Oak Mitigation Park in Orange County, and Chuluota Wilderness in Seminole County. Florida mice numbers increased or recovered to pre-burn levels within six months following prescribed burns in 2003 and 2004 on the Bullfrog Creek site. Florida mice dropped in numbers following a fire on the Split Oak site, but were increasing when the study ended. The steady decrease in numbers of mice at the Chuluota Wilderness site remained unaffected by habitat modification. Management of public lands that support Florida mice should continue to utilize prescribed fire to maintain upland habitats. When possible, prescribed fires should be limited to the spring and early summer months and applied to only a portion of the total available area in any year.

A primary concern associated with reservoir residential development is the loss of littoral habitat complexity. One potential approach to compensate for this loss is to deploy artificial habitat modules under existing piers, but the benefit of this practice on developed reservoirs has not been demonstrated. To determine the effect of pier habitat modifications, 77 piers located on 47, 100-m transects on two Piedmont Carolina reservoirs were selected for modification using plastic "fish hab" modules augmented with brush (brushed habs), hab modules alone (habs), or as reference piers without modification. Fish were sampled from all piers and transects in April, July, and October 2001 using a boat-mounted electrofisher. Generally, catch rates were higher at brushed hab piers and piers with habs than at reference piers during all seasons. Similarly, fish abundance was generally higher on transects containing natural woody debris, brushed habs, or habs than that on reference developed transects during spring and summer with exceptions during fall. On these reservoirs, fish abundance associated with developed shorelines appears to be related to the structural complexity of available habitat, regardless of structure composition. Supplementing piers with habitat structures appears to serve as an effective management technique to enhance littoral habitat complexity in residentially developed reservoirs.

The long-tailed bat (Chalinolobus tuberculatus) is a threatened species endemic to New Zealand. Historical anecdotes indicate that long-tailed bat populations have declined. However, it is unknown if all populations have declined and if declines are historical or ongoing. Thus, the development and implementation of a national network of long-tailed bat monitoring sites is a priority of the Department of Conservation's Bat Recovery Plan. Potentially, information gained from a national monitoring programme would assist conservation managers to target resources towards those areas where bat populations are declining and provide baseline information to assist managers to gauge the impact of management techniques on bat populations. Of critical importance is that unless it can be demonstrated that long-tailed bat populations have declined and that, that decline is real, management will not be initiated. The aim of this research was to investigate aspects of the ecology of long-tailed bats that would influence the development of a monitoring programme. The distribution, roost selection, habitat use, and activity patterns of a long-tailed bat population that persisted in the Waitakere Ranges, Auckland, were investigated. A study of the Waitakere Ranges long-tailed bat population was significant because (1) the Waitakere Ranges is the northern most location at which long-tailed bats have been researched; (2) the study was the first to be conducted on a long-tailed bat population that persisted in kauri Agathis australis dominated forest remnants; (3) the long-tailed bat population in the Waitakere Ranges is the only known extant population in close proximity to a major urban area; and (4) the factors that are attributed to long-tailed bat population declines (i.e., forest clearance, predation and urbanisation; O'Donnell, 2000) are likely to be ongoing and intensified in the Waitakere Ranges. Twenty roosts were located. Most roosts (85%) were in kauri, 2 were in mature rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) and 1 was in a kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides). All roosts were in large, live, emergent trees. Mean height of roost trees was 38.4 ± 1.3 m and average DBH was 186 ± 12 cm. The entrances of six roost cavities were identified all were located in minor lateral branches in the crown of the tree and were primarily near the tip of branches. Roosts were a mean height of 24.6 ± 3.7 m above ground level. It was argued that roosts in the crowns of kauri were inaccessible to terrestrial mammalian predators. Twenty-eight roost watches were conducted. The average number of bats counted leaving roosts was 10.0 ± 1.5 (maximum = 24). Roosts were occupied by radio-tagged bats for an average of 2.0 ± 0.4 days, and 11 (55 %) were occupied for only one day. Roost size was the lowest reported for long-tailed bats. Roost switching also appeared higher than in other populations that have been studied. It was argued that morepork predation may have a significant impact on the population viability of the population. As in other studies long-tailed bats were found to forage over modified habitats including over farmland, dwellings, orchards and along streams and roads with little vehicular traffic. Long-tailed bats foraged throughout the Waitakere Ranges and their foothills. Bat activity was highly variable. Of the environmental variables analysed, temperature was found to have the greatest influence on bat activity. There were seasonal and habitat influences on bat activity. The relationship between sample sizes, variation in bat detection rates and desired statistical power using automatic bat detectors to monitor populations of bats was explored. A power analysis on activity data collected with automatic bat detectors indicated that declines in bat populations would need to be reflected in declines of greater than fifty percent in bat activity before monitoring programmes would have sufficient power to detect declines in activity. It was recommended that monitoring programmes should concentrate on intensive presence – absence surveys rather than long-term studies at a few sites.

The spider assemblage from four shelterbelts and their adjacent grazed pastures in South Island, New Zealand was suction sampled from August 1994 to July 1995 and from March 1996 to March 1997. Spider density decreased rapidly with distance from the field margin (mean 241/ m²) to 72.5/m² at 2.5 m and 10.3/ m² at 5 m into the pasture. Fenced shelterbelts had 6.7 times more spiders and 3-10 more species than did the adjacent pasture. The most common pasture species was the European linyphiid Lepthyphantes tenuis (Blackwall) (37% of individuals) but, in shelterbelts, L. tenuis was equally common at 26% with an unidentified endemic theridiid species at 25%. Eleven shelterbelts were suction sampled in November 1995 and had spider densities ranging from 62/ m² to 369/ m², and species richness ranging from 6 to 12 from a 1 m² sample area at each site. Twenty-three species were recorded; three were introduced European linyphiids, the rest were native or endemic to New Zealand. Spider density was compared in three pasture types (cocksfoot and clovers, lucerne, and rye grass and clovers) both in open and agroforestry pasture (between rows of Pinus radiata trees). There were no differences between either open and agroforestry pasture, or the three pasture types. Spider density was not correlated with vegetation height or cover, although L. tenuis density was positively correlated with vegetation height characteristics in open pasture. Mowing ungrazed pasture plots reduced both spider density and species richness. Unmown plots had a fauna and density similar to those of shelterbelts, but mown plots had a density similar to those in grazed pasture. Field cage experiments in a lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) crop and in broad bean (Vicia faba L.) plots to investigate the effects of spider density on pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris)) abundance, showed that a large number of replicates (46 or more) were needed to detect differences in aphid abundance between spider density treatments. Aphid densities reached unnaturally high levels due to the sheltered cage conditions. The results are discussed in the context of the effects of pastoral agricultural practices in New Zealand on spider density, distribution, species composition, and potential in pest management.

Leafroller caterpillars (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) are among the most economically important pests of New Zealand vineyards. Buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum Moench., was sown in a vineyard as a floral food resource for the parasitoid wasp Dolichogenidea tasmanica Cameron., a natural enemy of leafrollers. In this work, eight vine rows sown with a mid-row buckwheat strips were alternated with eight control strips (grassed) at Squire Estate vineyard, Blenheim. Two yellow 'Trappit' sticky traps per buckwheat and control row were used to catch D. tasmanica over four successive fortnightly trapping periods. Significantly higher numbers of D. tasmanica were captured in buckwheat compared with control rows. Yellow sticky traps were also used to determine D. tasmanica flight activity in a buckwheat row. Higher numbers of the parasitoid were caught at the height at which the buckwheat grew compared with traps placed at the height of the vine foliage; this difference was significant. An attempt was also made to assess leafroller and parasitoid cocoon numbers in buckwheat compared with control rows; however, the difference was not significant in both cases. The fact that D. tasmanica numbers were higher in buckwheat compared with control vine rows suggests that buckwheat may have potential as a conservation biological control tool to manage leafroller populations in New Zealand vineyards.

Where people use the habitat of kea (Nestor notabilis (Gould)), problems related to kea activity often occur. Such problems are the result of the inquisitive nature of kea and are thought to be related to the availability of anthropogenic foods. Kea were observed at two sites, Arthur's Pass Village and Craigieburn Valley Skifield. The two sites were chosen because they are in close proximity to one another, accessible all year round and problems with kea were known to have occurred at the sites. The objective of this study was to contribute guidelines for a kea-friendly habitat management. Keas were banded with metal bands and individual colour bands to allow for easy identification of individuals. Monthly visits were made to both study sites. Observations were made on activities of kea, on seasonal and diurnal changes in numbers of kea, and on movements of kea. There were marked differences between the sites, in the average number of kea seen in each month. There was a strong correlation between the availability of anthropogenic foods and numbers of kea present at Arthur's Pass. It is suggested that anthropogenic foods attract kea to Arthur's Pass. Keas at Arthur’s Pass were mostly adult males. Family groups comprised of kea of all ages and both sexes were observed throughout the year at Craigieburn. At Craigieburn age-related differences in manipulative activities were evident. Activities did not differ quantitatively between the sites, but the focus of foraging and manipulative activities differed greatly. Kea at Craigieburn fed mainly on natural foods, but this was a reflection of availability. Kea at Arthur's Pass ate almost exclusively anthropogenic foods. Likewise, manipulative behaviours were characterised by a focus on natural resources at Craigieburn, but at Arthur's Pass kea manipulate mostly human made objects. Damage to human made objects was limited at Craigieburn, but evident at Arthur's Pass. In addition, at Arthur's Pass kea suffered injury and death as a result of human activity.

The aim of this research was to investigate the nature in which the spatial configuration of the fragmented native forest influences the distribution of native forest birds of Banks Peninsula, South Island, New Zealand. The data on which this research was based was a previous survey of the flora and fauna of Banks Peninsula (undertaken as part of the Protected Natural Areas Programme). For this research, a Geographic Information System (GIS) was used to store and analyse primary data on the location of bird observations and on the spatial configuration of the forest fragments. An evaluation of GIS as a tool in such research was included in this research. The configuration of the forest fragments on Banks Peninsula were spatially analysed to quantify the pattern in terms of dimensions, shape and isolation. Maps were produced to illustrate the location of observations of each native bird species, and the proportion of observations within the fragments was calculated. The dispersion of the observations was analysed to determine the level of aggregation. The relationship between the location of bird observations and the configuration of the fragments was analysed. Relationships between the location of bird observations and the plant species richness and community type of the forest fragments were identified. The level of coexistence between the native bird species was estimated. The nature and extent of the population-level and community-level effects of habitat fragmentation were estimated from the results obtained and also from previous research in other fragmented biological communities. The effect of habitat fragmentation on the structure of the populations of native birds was estimated. The results indicated that some species had developed a population structure with features similar to that of a classic metapopulation, whereas other species had a patchy population structure. Suggested management strategies include changes in the configuration of the fragments and habitat improvement. The species-specific response to habitat fragmentation would influence the precise nature of management strategies recommended. A critique of the research identified limitations of the investigative approach, the primary data and the analytical methods used. It was concluded that GIS proved to be an effective method of storing and analysing the data involved and presenting the results of the research.

0.0 "As a species with the ability to think, plan, and alter the environment in ways no other species can, man has a responsibility for managing and protecting the environment ... and fish and wildlife resources ... now and for generations to come." Only recently have efforts been made to link the field of landscape planning and design with that of ecology. One of the main purposes of this report is to emphasize the importance of strengthening this link for long range conservation of our environment. Man shares his dependence on the stability of the environment with other species. 0.1 Conservation of the environment, and hence, conservation of wildlife, spans a wide range of mans scientific and aesthetic needs. The need for environmental conservation promotes scientific research to discover and understand the organization of nature, which forms the basis of all life, and provides a means of retaining parts of our heritage which have both tangible and intangible values. 0.2 One of the most important roles of wildlife (especially birds) in the landscape 18 as an indicator of environmental conditions. Indigenous wildlife can be used as a monitor for ecological planning and design to ensure that the ecological balance is maintained within ecosystems. Therefore, to conserve wildlife is to conserve the New Zealand ecosystem. 0.3 There exists a correlation between methods employed to conserve indigenous wildlife and overall conservation of the fragile New Zealand ecosystem, e.g. soil and water conservation. Wildlife has therefore been selected to illustrate the need for ecological planning and design and the application of ecological principles to planning and design. 0.4 There is a growing awareness of New Zealand's unique flora and fauna; a remnant from a previous age which has been maintained by biogeographical processes. Their full value and potential has yet to be realized. 0.5 In New Zealand, birds are the obvious form of wildlife upon which to develop the concept of ecological design and planning. They evolved as the highest level of the 'animal' kingdom in the natural New Zealand ecosystem. 0.6 This report concentrates on indigenous avifauna species. They are more threatened by mans activities and are a more sensitive indicator of the conditions within natural ecosystems than most introduced species. The latter are usually less specialized and better adapted to man-modified systems, and hence will tolerate levels of environmental damage that exceed the limits of safety for the New Zealand ecosystem as a whole. The guidelines suggested in this report for wildlife conservation and habitat management, are tailored towards terrestrial native species (i.e. birds of the forest and wetland). These species are more threatened by human development and disturbance than the majority of our highly mobile coastal species. However, some of the points mentioned in this report are applicable to coastal habitats. 0.7 The lack of specific information on indigenous avifauna species has, in some areas, hampered efforts to develop meaningful explicit guidelines. Many critical questions still remain unanswered: the size of an area required for a community or species, how wide connecting corridors must be, etc. Despite these shortcomings, the guidelines provided should assist environmental and wildlife conservation. 0.8 While many people have become conservation conscious with respect to large areas of forest or wetland, they often fail to relate conservation to other parts of the environment (i.e. the damage resulting from everyday practices). It is hoped this report will provide insight for creating a better environment for both wildlife and people. The achievement of these goals depends on the work of planners, landscape architects, engineers, private landowners, and other professionals. The landscape architect has a significant effect on the ecology and hence wildlife, of existing and proposed developments. 0.9 Most planners and landscape architects are sensitive to broad environmental opportunities and constraints. However, the purpose of this report is to emphasize the need for all components of the landscape (i.e. wildlife, vegetation, climate, etc) to be considered in relation to ecological principles and to illustrate the very complex problems of the vulnerable New Zealand ecosystem.