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How should humans respond to the sea and the sea's agency for life on this blue planet? In light of the ecological crisis at sea and its impacts, addressing that question is necessary for Christians. Framing human response to the sea with the term maritime, which speaks of humanity's relationship with the sea from a particular context, this thesis offers a Trinitarian Pneumatology of the Indonesian Maritime. This maritime theology suggests that the sea, humans and their mutual yet asymmetrical relationship participate in the Trinitarian Spirit's work of preserving and renewing the whole creation from the sea. I navigate these discussions over the three parts of this thesis. Part I investigates the significance of maritime theology for Indonesia. I start by constructing five guiding principles of a maritime theology: (1) the sea is sacramental; (2) the sea affirms humans as participants, not the centre in God's work; (3) the sea is a participant in God's work; (4) as connector, the sea offers a friendship for the common life; and (5) as boundary, the sea shapes maritime particularity and affirms its significance. Then, I explore the Indonesian maritime world and bring it into conversations with the guiding principles. As it encourages humans to let the sea flourish in its ecological and social agencies, maritime theology is significant for Indonesia, which is in a maritime crisis but has maritime potential to address that crisis. This part indicates Trinitarian pneumatology's critical role in constructing such a maritime theology. Part II clarifies and justifies that crucial role by discussing the Trinitarian theology with an emphasis on the Spirit's work in creation. I demonstrate the significance of Trinitarian theology and then turn to the Spirit's work as specifically suitable for the maritime world. The Trinitarian Spirit creates space for non-human creatures, including the sea and sea spirits recognised in traditional maritime cultures, to participate in God's economy, as illustrated in the Trinitarian theology of creation. The Trinitarian Spirit also embraces traditional maritime cultures as expressions of the Spirit's work. Part II constructs my Trinitarian pneumatology of the maritime: the we-sea relationship, which puts humans and the sea as co-participants in the Trinitarian Spirit's work. Finally, Part III brings the Trinitarian pneumatology of the maritime into an encounter with the Indonesian maritime to splash out my Trinitarian pneumatology of the Indonesian maritime. This part elucidates the Indonesian we-sea relationship. I argue that the Indonesian maritime space is a participation in the Spirit's work as the Spirit dwells and works in that space, including in-between the sea and humans, to preserve and renew the space. Indonesian people and the sea are co-participants in the Trinitarian Spirit's work.

Existing whaling historiography frames the end of the traditional whaling era in the Arctic along established interpretational and methodological paradigms. These perspectives consider the industry almost entirely within the context of ships, men, whales and the sea. This thesis shifts its attention to the industry's historical peripheries to examine the people, connections and spaces which existed within Dundee's widening scope of Arctic commercial activities from 1858 to 1922. As bowhead whale populations diminished, the trade began to diversify its financial base of support, explore additional natural resource to exploit on an industrial scale, and change the dynamics of its labour requirements. Going beyond the men on whaling ships, the thesis seeks to identify what other people and activities defined this enterprise. Research therefore introduces the term 'Arctic trade' to comprehend its investigation into this transitive era more fully. The thesis adopts a transnational/global history approach, enabling it to shift from a national perspective to a changing mix of local, regional and transoceanic historical scales. This makes it possible for research to recognise the various social and spatial boundaries within the Arctic trade and study where they can be found. Research also considers the ways in which the industry became a variable social anchor within the transmaritime communities it engaged.

Cyber threats to maritime organisations are becoming increasingly prominent. Given the significant likely impacts and the high-profile media attention surrounding previous attacks, it is unsurprising that leaders within maritime organisations are motivated to engage with cyber risks. This has catalysed the development of new cybersecurity guidance, however this focus on the organisational side has not been met with the same balance within scholarly discourse, with most research positioned within the technical aspects of cybersecurity. As limited research exists examining decision-making at senior leadership levels, this thesis seeks to address this gap by critically exploring the potentiality of simulation-based approaches for enabling more effective decision support at this level. The literature review develops an understanding of the risks, impacts and challenges influencing cybersecurity decision-making in the maritime domain. It also identifies game-based simulation as the most effective method for simulation-based approaches in cybersecurity. The research develops, tests, and applies two scenario-driven exercises for executive decision-makers which offers insights about cybersecurity risks and decision-making processes. Through these findings, it establishes the potentiality of game-based learning for raising awareness of cyber risks at the senior executive level. A key implication includes building on existing literature to establish decision-making as a key factor in what makes executive decision-makers analyse cyber risk and respond to cybersecurity incidents effectively. By designing exercises that create a safe space environment, it also provides evidence to the senior leadership of such organisations, from which they can understand the potential eventualities of a cyber attack in the absence of an attack actually happening.

This study analyses local communities in Caernarfonshire in order to offer new perspectives on Welsh society in the late Victorian and early Edwardian eras. This has been seen as a period of major change in Wales characterised by economic modernisation and national awakening. However, with some notable exceptions, previous research has mainly focused on the industrialised communities of the south Wales coalfield, and the diversity of experiences across Wales has been more often acknowledged than researched. After setting the subject in a wider historiographical context which highlights the limitations of established narratives and identifies key areas requiring investigation, the thesis devotes a series of chapters to case studies of Caernarfonshire’s urban, maritime and agricultural and industrial communities. The use of specific case studies aims to address the challenge posed by the complex and multilayered nature of communities. Caernarfonshire was geographically diverse and contained communities different in make-up and outlook. Agricultural areas were dominated by a few landowning families distanced by language, religion and politics from the majority of the county’s inhabitants. Fishing and maritime trade provided the economic basis for coastal communities such as Porthmadog, while the growth of the tourist trade in Llandudno gave rise to a different kind of community. The development of the slate industry, much of it by large landowners, transformed the county giving rise to population movement and industrial urbanisation. The urban communities studied are Caernarfon, Conwy and Pwllheli. The agricultural/maritime settlements analysed are Carnguwch, Tudweiliog, Pistyll and Betws-y-Coed and the industrial areas are upper Llanwnda and the lower part of Llanberis parish. The census returns for 1881 and 1901 form the basis of the analysis and profiling of the chosen communities. These sources, which are as inclusive as it is possible to be, help give a common analytical structure to the examination of the communities. This quantitative analysis is extended and enriched with qualitative evidence by using a wealth of other sources such as court records, council archives, school logbooks, contemporary reminiscences and newspapers which help to humanise the study. This combination of analytical methods facilitates the analysis of the selected communities in Caernarfonshire and how they developed and changed over the period.

The aim of this study is to propose managerial rules for recovering from a disruption event in liner shipping. A critical realism philosophy is adopted in the design of the research. Optimisation and an experimental methodology which follows the critical realism paradigm is used as a framework. Particle swarm optimisation (PSO) is an optimisation model in which various rules are implemented to search for the optimal option to recover from a disruption problem. Solution representations for two options, speeding up and skipping, have been designed. A case study of a trans- Pacific route is used to generate novelty in the model under various configurations of degrees of disruption, maximum speeds, fuel prices, time windows and skipping penalties. The results show that the skipping option performs better than the speeding up option when there is a large amount of delay. The port skipping option is more valuable when the maximum speed limit of a vessel is low. The option of port skipping saves more total cost than the option of speeding up when fuel prices increase. Particularly, a vessel which applies the skipping option can save more total cost than one which applies the speeding option when there are high fuel prices and high degrees of disruption. In other words, speeding up is recommended in the case of low fuel prices and low degrees of disruption. The speeding option is recommended when a vessel faces a short delay and has a long time window. In contrast, the skipping option is more valuable when there is a long delay and a short time window. The higher the skipping delay penalties, the more valuable the speeding option is.

This thesis explores monsters and monstrosity in sea literature of the nineteenth century, particularly the period 1820-1883. In a period in which Britannia so thoroughly 'rules the waves', how does English literature depict potentially monstrous creatures which inhabit the depths beneath? I argue that the literary relationship between monstrosity and the sea plays out through the language and metaphor of the material culture and public exhibition of animals in Britain at this time, including traveling whales carcasses, menageries, the Crystal Palace, early aquaria, and the London Zoological Society. The control conferred by this culture of display, however, is undermined by frustrating hybrid creatures populating structurally hybrid texts which ultimately destabilise the organisation they are often intended to cement. Furthermore, the monstrous potential of the sea creature on display is that, instead of being the trophy it is intended to be, the caught creature is an anxious avatar of the 'uncaught' or the 'unseen'. Also 'on display' in these texts is the human capacity - even propensity - to do violence in wild spaces, and consequently to repatriate that violence back on the terra firma of the empire.

The economic and security significance of maritime and political interests around the world has altered with the changing international security environment, as has the importance of secure sea routes to meet global demand. Oman increasingly relies on the sea for maritime trade and exploitation of marine resources, but without a common maritime policy and strategy to align its commercial and maritime interests, its offshore resources will remain under-developed. Oman’s primary interest is to ensure national maritime security by maintaining an effective navy and other agencies to guard its sea areas, and protect its maritime trade. However, it still lacks a formal maritime doctrine to underpin its policies This study argues that a maritime doctrine will assist Oman to utilise its maritime power and protect its national interests. In the absence of archive material, this study has drawn upon personal interviews with maritime experts and practitioners, and reviewed and analyzed a wide range of official publications and secondary sources on maritime policy and doctrine. It highlights the relationship between economic growth and maritime trade in Oman, examines the role of Oman’s shipping industry and related activities, and compares the experiences and expertise of several nations that have established maritime doctrine. Oman’s need for a maritime doctrine in order to protect its national interests and sovereignty is pressing. It should connect and coordinate its maritime power, military strategy, policies, and standing operating procedures through a single maritime doctrine that will provide the basis for mutual understanding between units of the Sultan’s Armed Forces, related government agencies, and national policy-makers, ensuring operational familiarity and efficiency. In proposing a discrete administrative body to oversee the codification of principles and procedures, the study fills a significant gap in Oman’s national maritime policy and strategy, since the expression of maritime doctrine will help protect the integrity and interests of the state and its people.

This thesis examines the impact of disease and mortality on the Royal Navy in the West Indies from 1770 to 1806. It also investigates the navy’s medical branch which was established to manage the care of sick seamen. Using an interdisciplinary approach, this thesis produces a cohesive understanding of how disease and mortality affected the navy’s presence in the West Indies and the ways in which the navy attempted to mitigate their impact. This thesis explores various aspects of naval medicine including the history of the Sick and Hurt Board, the diseases which distressed seamen, the medicines distributed by the navy, the key personnel who were integral in generating changes to the medical system and the development of hospital facilities. Largely based on Admiralty records including correspondence and minutes from the Sick and Hurt Board, ships’ muster books and surgeons’ journals, this thesis investigates the most prevalent diseases in the West Indies and the prescribed treatments advocated by the navy. It then examines how these diseases and treatments affected seamen on board ships in that region through a quantitative analysis; then focuses on a number of the integral naval personnel who ushered in sweeping changes to naval medicine; and explores the navy’s increasing desire to transition from hired sick quarters to purpose-built naval hospitals on various West Indies islands. It concludes with a case study of the development of Antigua naval hospital which demonstrates the effectiveness of these facilities in convalescing sick seamen. Through a quantitative analysis of ships’ muster books, this thesis argues that the levels of sickness and mortality in the navy in the West Indies during the late eighteenth century are largely exaggerated in historical studies while also discrediting the myth that those islands were the ‘white man’s graveyard’ for many naval personnel. By surveying over 100,000 seamen on board ships in that region, sickness and mortality figures emerge which indicate that, on average, less than 4 per cent of seamen were on the sick list at any given time and only a small percentage died, meaning that the majority remained on active duty. This thesis then argues that many of the changes to the navy’s medical system that facilitated such low percentages were primarily instigated by surgeons, physicians and captains who identified beneficial medicines and championed their general distribution among the entire fleet. By looking at these aspects of naval medicine through a multidisciplinary lens rather than a purely administrative one, it is possible to understand the true state of health of British seamen in the West Indies during the last quarter of the eighteenth century.

The academic consensus that the Roman invasion of A.D. 43 landed at Richborough, Kent, has been challenged in recent years. Proponents of the alternative hypothesis that it took place at or near Fishbourne, West Sussex, have claimed that this makes better sense of the admittedly garbled account in the ancient sources of the land campaign in Britain. This thesis asks what sense the Fishbourne hypothesis makes in terms of the options for the naval strategy of the crossing. After considering the respective archaeological and topographical contexts of Richborough and of Chichester Harbour, the thesis discusses the type of ships which would have been available to the Roman invasion forces and assesses the evidence for their performance. It concludes that the transports would have been square-rigged ships of the Romano-Celtic tradition with extremely limited windward performance and sluggish speed potential. The constraints imposed on ships of such limited performance by the marine environment are discussed, including the significance of the tidal régime in the Dover Strait and the English Channel, the statistical frequency of the prevailing winds and the nature of the navigational hazards. On the basis of information given in Caesar's account a century earlier, an estimate is made of the number of ships required to transport the whole invasion force across the Channel at the same time and the conclusion is reached that this figure might be in the order of 725 to 1,050 vessels, including escorting warships. Drawing evidence from invasion passages made at other times in the Channel, the thesis investigates the constraints imposed on the naval operation by the number of ships involved. Further study of the conduct of these invasion passages concludes that the option chosen for each is heavily influenced both by the maritime environment of the Channel and the politico/strategic context of the invasion. The thesis concludes by examining the options available to the Roman naval planners of A.D. 43 and argues that the strategic situation at that time was such that an invasion landing anywhere in the Solent area was out of the question. The most likely scenario is that the invasion forces crossed from Boulogne in three groups to land at a secure beachhead at Richborough.

The law of subrogation is one of the most important and complex doctrines in the law of marine insurance. Controversy and complexity over this doctrine have long been discussed in courts and among academic scholars. Common law has created some rather unjust and harsh results towards this doctrine, such as Yorkshire v. Nisbet, as to the surplus of recoveries as the result of currency fluctuation; Napier v. Hunter as to the 'top down' recovery rule; Simpson v. Thomson as to rights against vessel in the same ownership. The thesis which is primarily based on the English law attempts to tackle the legal problems in application of the doctrine in the law of marine insurance. Comparative study of this doctrine has been carried out and proposals to reform this law were also submitted in the thesis. The problems exist in the law of subrogation, inter alia, the basis of subrogation rights; the mechanics of taking over the rights and remedies of the person who has been paid; the distribution of recovery when the payment has not satisfied all the loss of the assured; the legal issue when the payment is not made under legal obligation by the insurer or by a third party; limitation, loss of rights and the defences available to the third party. Chapter I is a brief introduction. Chapter II is the general consideration of doctrine of subrogation. In the third chapter, basis of subrogation was explored, which was debated for many years until the decision of the House of Lords in Napier v. Hunter. In Chapter IV, the exercise of subrogation rights was discussed, in particular, when does the insurer remain dominus litis? In Chapter V, a thorough analysis of the distribution of recoveries under various kinds of policies and proper allocation of subrogation recovery is proposed.

The fundamental premise of this dissertation is that the open registry of vessels system is a better suited alternative for the future of ship registration in the development of international shipping trade and commerce, despite the fact that due to its present deficiencies as a scheme concerning the enforcement of maritime safety and prevention and control of marine pollution from ships, it is discriminated against by national tonnage registries. It also seeks to demonstrate why the Panamanian scheme, despite disclosed evidences of maritime administrative incongruities, seems to be a successful ship registry based on its characteristics as a place for transit and service and the potential connotations of the take-over of the Panama Canal by the republic by the year 2000. It aims to conclude that the future of ship registration in the development of international shipping trade and commerce will not be better served by regional (i.e., EUROS) or individual (i.e. international, offshore and second ship registries) efforts but by the liberal implementation of the open registry of vessels system world-wide, where an 'integral' solution between the maritime players must be agreed upon in order to address the substandard tonnage and 'human factor' issues head-on. PART ONE: THE CONTROVERSY SURROUNDING THE MARITIME FLAGS ISSUE. PART TWO: THE BATTLE OF SHIP REGISTRIES. PART THREE: THE PANAMIAN CONNECTION.

Abstract: During the British involvement in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, 1793-1815, the Royal Navy contracted for, inspected, and distributed clothing to naval warships in British ports and abroad. This dissertation examines the Admiralty in-letters stored at the British National Archives, Kew, and the Caird Library, at the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, to understand how this system worked both practically as a system of production and distribution, but also rhetorically, as an important aspect of the power between administrators, commanders and crew. The Royal Navy concurrently provided clothing on three different models. Officers wore loosely regulated uniforms that they personally paid for and sourced. Sailors wore slop clothes, mass-produced clothing purchased from private contractors in bulk. Finally, the marines were dressed in a combination of the two. They wore slops when they performed seafaring labour and during leisure time but wore more strictly regulated uniforms that were reminiscent of those from the army when policing sailors. Naval commanders both interfered with the uniforms of the marines, whose red coats visually challenged naval authority, and advocated for sailors’ slop clothing to solidify their own paternal mastery of their vessels. The navy was a large bureaucratic and technological body beyond its primary military function, and clothing reveals how much time commanders spent on tedious paperwork and supply issues between moments of heightened military action. Further, the proximity of naval ships to British ports diminished the authority of commanders, exposing confrontations between military personnel and civilians. The period of conflict between 1793 and 1815 marks the decline of early modern forms of individual commander care and clothing provision in many respects but the true break was yet to come with the adoption of steam technology.

Man-made navigable waterways within the Scandinavian homelands during the Migration Period (A.D. 400–550) and Late Germanic Iron Age (A.D. 550–800) are remarkably rare and represent significant investments of human capital comparable to other contemporary monumental construction projects such as the Danevirke fortifications in northern Germany. The Migration Period Spangereid Canal in southern Norway and the Late Germanic Iron Age Kanhave Canal on the Danish island of Samsø are the only two examples of native prehistoric Scandinavian canals known to exist. Previous studies consist of localized research confined to each canal site region and reflect compartmentalized investigations of the socio-political organizations of Migration Period Norway and Late Germanic Iron Age Denmark. The archaeological, artefactual, literary, and linguistic segregation of Spangereid and Kanhave canal site research hinders consideration of possible connections to the materialization of power concentration and central place formation in the broader cultural landscapes of southern Scandinavia. This research consists of an examination of the Spangereid and Kanhave canals within the contexts of power concentration and central place formation while considering several hypotheses. The first is that power was linked to places where a large amount of resources were allocated to develop the physical landscape. The second considers whether massive undertakings such as canal sites required the leadership of a single unified central authority to exist. The third contemplates whether such a central authority used a strategy of ‘social mechanics’, whereby the canal sites were created as ‘mechanisms’ for the purposes of integration and control. Finally, it is hypothesized that the canal sites should be considered as ‘central transit places’ in the prehistoric Scandinavian landscape. Employing a multidisciplinary theoretical framework which juxtaposes archaeology with Old Norse sources, historical documents, toponymy, and geology to gain a longue durée perspective, the thesis looks to account for methodological problems associated with traditional mono-theoretical frameworks, such as those used in previous site-specific studies. The interpretations in these studies are typically based on small-scale investigations which focus on singular types of evidence. By contrast, the present study’s framework includes a larger breadth of evidence than has previously been applied to the study of Scandinavian canal sites, and enables a multi-angled, long-term interpretation of their culture areas. The application of this multidisciplinary theoretical framework demonstrates that the areas in which the canal sites of prehistoric Denmark and southern Norway were constructed were highly valued by both local and distant Scandinavian populations. Status grave sites, fortifications, building remains, textiles, prestige goods, and a continual usage and growth of the surrounding landscape in the following centuries mark the canal sites as social focal points within each region. The amount of labor and resources required to construct the canals during the 5th and 8th centuries, and their subsequent disuse in the following centuries, demonstrate not only that political change was rapid both in Denmark and southern Norway, but also that the canals were at points valuable enough to merit the continued investment of human capital. Danish territories in particular, influenced by their vicinity to neighboring continental states, internal and external conflict, and evolutions in international trade, exhibited the most comprehensive and accelerated political changes. The Spangereid Canal in southern Norway shows the most developed ground plan in the immediate vicinity of the canal site, with centuries of continual habitation and construction developments in the form of boathouses, homes, and status graves. The first five phases of the Danevirke were contemporary with the Spangereid Canal’s use and the Kanhave Canal’s construction, suggesting that central authorities were already wielding their power to create social, labor-intensive engineering works in the Scandinavian landscape. This study supports and furthers the model in which authorities of greater and lesser Scandinavian regions used ‘social mechanisms’ to gradually coalesce polities through the domination of local and regional trade, the re-orienting of social focus, and a restructuring of their regional landscapes by way of investments in construction projects such as canals.

I argue that the relationship among Great Britain, Japan, and the United States between 1900 and 1920 resembles an informal triumvirate that maintained geo-strategic stability around the Pacific Rim. Those countries’ foreign policymakers routinely considered how their actions would impact the others and affect the geo-strategic balance in East Asia. Great Britain often proved the counterweight to balance tensions between the United States and Japan – two rising powers with sometimes conflicting goals in the region. When potential conflicts arose, those nations’ leaders favored diplomatic means of resolving the tensions.The triumvirate began to coalesce during the late 1890s as crises erupted in China. After the Boxer War, Great Britain and Japan entered into a formal alliance with one another, while the United States pressed for an Open Door policy in China. Despite differing interpretations of the Open Door Policy, the three countries’ leaders all agreed on its importance. With shared interests in mind, American and British leaders supported Japan’s war against Russia. Afterwards, Great Britain and Japan re-affirmed their alliance, and American and British leaders sought more amiable relations as tensions between them in the Western Hemisphere abated.The triumvirate experienced its first major crisis in 1906-1907 when Japan and the United States butted heads over immigration, resulting in a war scare. Although they averted conflict, Great Britain’s increasing focus on Europe jeopardized the fragile balance in Asia. With fewer Pacific competitors, Japanese political coalitions pulled their state’s foreign policy in different directions, resulting in increased tensions among the three powers. Various political leaders, though, aimed to settle that turbulence, and during and after World War I the three nations sought a new Pacific power-balance. Eventually, they formalized their relationship through the three treaties enacted by Washington Naval Conference of 1921-1922. Despite geo-strategic rivalry in the Far East between 1900 and 1920, cooperation among the informal triumvirate of Great Britain, Japan, and the United States prevented the outbreak of conflict among them. This research highlights how war among the three nations, which eventually erupted in 1941, was not inevitable in spite of competing interests, concerns over prestige, and ever-present fears over the balance of power in the Pacific.

This dissertation argues that early modern English writers represent the sea and tides as offering multiple, often contradictory spaces of risk and possibility. On page and stage, the ocean appears threatening and protective, liberating and confining, barren and fecund. Merchant vessels set sail to return with precious cargo, or to sink; royal children cast adrift either perish, or return unlooked-for; pirate crews elect a captain who may lead them to freedom, or to the gibbet; sea-storms divide families for the rest of their lives, or until a miraculous reunion; coastlines fortify island nations, or leave them vulnerable to attacking fleets. The sea furnishes an objective correlative for tempestuous grief, bottomless love, utter confusion, and myriad other states. As plot element and metaphorical vehicle, the literary sea opens multiple possibilities. The first chapter argues that in history plays by Shakespeare, Fletcher, and Greene, the trope of England as an island fortified by the sea emphasizes not threatened British insularity, but rather hospitality, fortunate invasions, and continuity between Britain’s tidal rivers and its surrounding seas. The second chapter traces the security and vulnerability of maritime travelers from classical and medieval texts by Ovid, Virgil, Petrarch, Gower, and Chaucer to early modern romances by Greene, Shakespeare, Marlowe, and Sidney through three key images: the storm-tossed ship, the rudderless boat, and the symmetrical shipwreck. The third chapter considers pirates in plays by Heywood and Rowley, Dekker, Daborne, and Shakespeare as representations of oceanic risk and contradiction. The fourth chapter analyzes gendered depictions of mythical sea creatures and deities in works by Shakespeare, Spenser, Dekker, Marlowe, and Lyly, arguing that while these authors use sea imagery to complicate traditional representations of gender, when they ascribe gendered qualities to the embodied sea, it is within the bounds of traditional gender roles. The final chapter discusses riches from the sea in texts by Marlowe, Shakespeare, Munday, and Spenser, demonstrating that before maritime wealth can be circulated economically or socially, it must undergo a land-change—a process of re-integration that frequently demands reversing the effects of sea-change.

Janet Taylor made major contributions to Victorian navigational practices. She did so through creating business opportunities for herself as an educator, author, and inventor of nautical instruments.

Automatic Identification System, commonly known as AIS, is a maritime communication system that is used to keep track of positions and activities of ships. It is widely implemented all around the world, and mandated on vessels over a certain size according to the International Maritime Organization. It is a signal broadcast over radio frequencies that contains ship characteristics, position, speed, and other information. AIS is also being implemented in aids to navigation, supplementing and in some cases replacing traditional aids such as lighthouses and buoys. The protocol standard contains no security, leaving AIS vulnerable to spoofing, hijacking, and denial of service attacks. This paper explores the possible consequences of AIS exploitation, as well as options to mitigate risk. Digital signature authentication of AIS signals is examined with particular attention paid to the feasibility and challenges of wide scale implementation. Ultimately the potential benefits of digital signature authentication are considered to be outweighed by the challenges of implementation.

When he began his journal seaman Hugh Calhoun had high hopes for the outward-bound voyage ahead of him. Ship-of-the-Line Ohio was back from the Siege of Veracruz, being prepared for her next mission, and the War was at its height. The cruize, as he called it, did not turn out as eventful as he expected it to be and yet he was nevertheless able to produce a book which bountifully embodies a short but fruitful chapter of maritime literary history. Serio-Comic Journal of a Cruize, On Board of the U. S. Ship Ohio, Commencing from New York June 23d 1847, with its full name, is a shipboard diary kept by an ordinary seaman during the Mexican-American War. The 148-page manuscript volume, located at the archives of the Massachusetts Historical Society in Boston, is a product of the maturity phase of American sea writing as Calhoun, self-consciously a Jack Tar and an American, was representing a trained, well-read and well-influenced generation of sailor-authors who lived and recorded the final years of America under sail. The past three decades have seen a progressive conceptual expansion of the themes involving the ways in which literate sailors viewed the world they lived in. Scholars of early American literature, maritime history and culture have explored the meanings and information provided in the textual products of seamen. Upon comparison with similar material found at the archives of maritime museums and historical societies, and discussions with leading maritime historians, Serio-Comic Journal proved to be a meaningful source text which, through scholarly treatment, can benefit research in multiple disciplines due to the significance of its production date and the diversity of the topics and literary forms found in it. This edition aims to provide related fields of study with a historically contextualized shipboard document in the light of these latest findings. The transcription of the complete text is presented with glossarial, historiographical and geographical notes, whereas the introductory chapters discuss several key subjects to form a framework for the better evaluation of not only the source text of the edition but the sea journal genre as a whole.

Comprising a cold war that endured from the late eighteenth to the late nineteenth century, the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade held the promise of a new phase of modernity in which the principles of the Enlightenment and the Age of Revolution would be realized so that human liberty, rights, cosmopolitanism, and social justice would flourish at the center of an increasingly international politics. However, nineteenth century maritime literature from the imperial Atlantic nations of Brazil, Britain, and the United States -- all of which were deeply and distinctly involved in the controversy over the traffic -- decried the frustration of these ideals both before and after official acts of abolition and emancipation. As the sea offered unique perspectives on the transnational coloniality underlying the growth of western nations, maritime writers succeeded in disclosing the clandestine colonialist exploitation that sustained the progress of these empires during slavery and after abolition. This comparative dissertation explores literary interrogations of the ideals of western modernity through a synthesis of authors of different race, nationality, and literary status in order to sketch a generic field of western maritime literature. Each of the dissertation’s three chapters focuses on four authors -- Adolfo Caminha, Joseph Conrad, and Herman Melville receive repeated concentration -- and Brazil, Britain, and the United States are represented in every chapter. Race and the identity of the subject constitutes the central dialogue of the fictions explored in chapter one, which attempt to reconstruct fluid ontologies that evade the strictures of colonialist thinking. Personhood confronts the fluidity of the law in chapter two as maritime texts chart contests and circumventions of law in the extra-sovereign space of international waters. Chapter three examines the intersection of ontology and law through the moral concepts of natural law and crimes against nature, incorporating maritime texts that dramatize the employment of these rhetorical tools of meta-jurisprudence in pursuits of justice that ultimately liberate and oppress. Throughout, the mobile maritime environment and the slave trade foster the imaginative setting through which late-nineteenth century authors reveal the fluctuations of coloniality in western modernity.

The inland waterway transportation system of the United States (U.S.) handles 11.7 billion tons of freight annually and connects the heartland of the U.S. with the rest of the world by providing a fuel-efficient and environmentally friendly mode of transportation. This dissertation aims to create decision support tools for maritime stakeholders to measure the economic impacts of the inland waterway transportation systems under real world scenarios including disruptions, demand changes, port expansion decisions, and channel deepening investments. Monte Carlo simulation, system dynamics, discrete-event simulation, agent-based modeling, and multiregional input-output modeling techniques are utilized to analyze the complex relationships between inland waterway transportation system components and regional economic impact factors. The first research contribution illustrates that the expected duration of a disruption determines whether decision makers are better off waiting for the waterway system to reopen or switching to an alternative mode of transportation. Moreover, total disruption cost can be reduced by increasing estimation accuracy of disruption duration. The second research contribution shows that without future investment in inland waterway infrastructure, a sustainable system and associate economic impacts cannot be generated in the long-term. The third research contribution illustrates that investing in bottleneck system components results in higher economic impact than investing in non-bottleneck components. The developed models can be adapted to any inland waterway transportation system in the U.S. by utilizing data obtained by publically available sources to measure the economic impacts under various scenarios to inform capital investment decisions and support an economically sustainable inland waterway transportation system.

This dissertation seeks to move pirates and their economic relationships from the social and legal margins of the Atlantic world to the center of it and integrate them into the broader history of early modern colonization and commerce. In doing so, I examine piracy and illicit activities such as smuggling and shipwrecking through a new lens. They act as a form of economic engagement that could not only be used by empires and colonies as tools of competitive international trade, but also as activities that served to fuel the developing Caribbean-Atlantic economy, in many ways allowing the plantation economy of several Caribbean-Atlantic islands to flourish. Ultimately, in places like Jamaica and Barbados, the success of the plantation economy would eventually displace the opportunistic market of piracy and related activities. Plantations rarely eradicated these economies of opportunity, though, as these islands still served as important commercial hubs: ports loaded, unloaded, and repaired ships, taverns attracted a variety of visitors, and shipwrecking became a regulated form of employment. In places like Tortuga and the Bahamas where agricultural production was not as successful, illicit activities managed to maintain a foothold much longer. Historians have begun to challenge plantation economy model that has served as the dominant paradigm in Caribbean-Atlantic history. A growing awareness that Caribbean-Atlantic socioeconomic history needs to be reproblematized with an emphasis on diversity and economic diversification has shed new light on slavery in the region. My work contributes to the new historiography on Caribbean-Atlantic diversification by illustrating how piracy itself not only encompassed a diverse range of socioeconomic activities, but widely contributed to the Caribbean-Atlantic economy in understudied ways—including the slave trade of the region.

Naval strategy starts in peacetime. A naval force cannot wait until the impending outbreak of conflict to determine how it will fight and win at sea. The twenty-first century is now characterised by an information-centric world, where mankind itself gravitates to, and revolves around, information and information technologies. From televisions to the Internet and smart-phones, very little in our existence today does not include some form of dependence on an information technology. Just as mankind has become dependent upon information technologies, so too has the conduct of military operations. There is an ever-growing body of literature that details, discusses and debates the changing character of warfare in the information age. There is, however, a shortfall in the literature regarding how information-age warfare is impacting today’s navies and, more importantly, what they should do about it. If a navy is to remain relevant and effective in the contemporary strategic environment then it must have the capacity to effectively conduct maritime operations in the information age. The means by which the Royal Australian Navy has chosen to address this challenge is through the development of an Information Warfare capability. The development of this capability, however, has not progressed as originally envisaged following the release of an internal document, titled Information Warfare: Master Plan 2030, in late 2011. There is little doubt an Information Warfare capability will significantly enhance the Royal Australian Navy’s ability to conduct maritime operations in the information age. The challenge for the Royal Australian Navy lies in realising its Information Warfare aspirations. The most effective way to achieve change is to develop a coherent strategy. This thesis argues that, in order to realise its Information Warfare (IW) aspirations - as outlined in the Information Warfare: Master Plan 2030 - the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) should develop an Information Warfare Strategy to support contemporary maritime operations. Its aim is to inform policy discussion and propose how that strategy might be developed. Thus, the thesis analyses what Information Warfare means and discusses the opportunities and challenges associated with developing an Information Warfare strategy. The thesis concludes by recommending some guiding principles to assist the Royal Australian Navy to develop an Information Warfare strategy.

The Maritime Museum finds its home in a corner of the Baltimore harbor near the intersection of Boston Street and Clinton Street in Canton. As an institution focusing on the historical context of Baltimore, I chose to align the building with Fort McHenry; a National Monument and Historic Shrine as well as a place that I have enjoyed visiting since childhood. The site itself, is an area that my family used frequently. Afternoons were spent in the small park located not far from a public works building and parking lot. The city keeps most of their unused equipment and vehicles behind that building and it creates the only unpleasant corner of an otherwise well-developed intersection. This corner is also a focal point for commuters driving into the city along Boston Street. I always thought of the great potential the corner had and how it could be helped. If I were to take away the public works building and the refuse surrounding it and replace it with an extended green space and a building that people would enjoy using, I believe it could revitalize the area and bring visitors from the city center and into a neighborhood that is only used by residents and passers-by. The museum will include offices, archives, a restoration lab, small exhibition spaces as well as the main gallery; an enclosed dry-dock which displays a skipjack, Kathryn. During the design process, I searched for many historical ships and felt as though it was essential for the ship to be of Maryland origin. I chose Kathryn because of her reasonable size and history. She was built in 1901 and endured many years of service in the oyster-dredging industry before undergoing extensive reconstruction in 1954. Over the past few decades, Kathryn has become a National Historic Landmark and she is currently being restored in Tilghman Island, Maryland. In theory, The Maritime Museum of Baltimore would offer a home to the newly restored Kathryn. The materials, form, and construction were chosen to reference the craft of ship-building. Engineered wood is used as the main structure and is exposed in the main exhibition areas of the building. This approach would create a thoughtful connection between the artifacts and an environment similar to those they previously existed within. As for the central space of the museum, the roofof the dry-dock gallery is designed to resemble the formwork used in ship construction. The curvature changes from bay to bay eventually ending at its highest peak over the harbor. The form conveys a gesture of the building opening itself toward the water and welcoming the view of the historic fort across the harbor; thus creating a special transitional moment where the water meets the land. Working on this project has been an absolutely enjoyable experience. I was able to work with a meaningful site and create a proposition that I have thought about for a long time. From this project, I would take away the sense of detail and how the construction of a building can have a direct relationship to its program as well as the sensibility of designing a project that is not only site specific but also finds context within the city.

Naturally, maritime training simulators at all events are valuable instructional and pedagogical tools. Through the history, the maritime simulation was utilized to train prospective maritime apprentices in whom it has filled the gap left by the acute shortage of opportunities for jobs onboard vessels around the globe. However, professional seafarers are the axis of success and competitiveness in the field of maritime training. They are the ones that, who are well trained and have the responsibilities of their work and the surrounding environment. In order to achieve the success along with effective training skills, both maritime companies and seafarers should implement a management of safety onboard ships, which only can be executed through the effective usage of the Bridge Resource Management (BRM) and righteous maritime simulation training. Qualitative upgrading of the maritime training process at higher education levels depends predominantly on the instructive value of the instructors' educational software and the content of these programs which contains advanced and intelligent scenarios that benefit positively in providing effective training in order to, transfer and implement their gained skills from virtual reality to the actual environment with minimal risks and additionally to avoid the unforeseen occurrences at sea. The outcomes of the evaluation have shown the instructional suitability of the maritime educational scheme and significant capabilities, it provides, as well as the domains and frameworks for its instructional development. The above facts are substantial in the refinement and improvement of the current maritime education and growth of the apprentices' capabilities and the professionalism of their skills, along with the farthest purpose of creating more educated marine navigators in the worldwide merchant fleet. This research proposes and demonstrates in details the purpose of the maritime simulation training complexes, the elements that if provided, will lead to an effective maritime simulation training, types of maritime simulation, the International Maritime Organization (IMO), its tools and its power for the effectiveness of the maritime simulation training through different conventions & codes and the future for the maritime simulation training, in order to emphasize and accentuate the interplay between instructors and apprentices in an integrated maritime simulation complex on which a serious maritime event is taking place. The distillation of this thesis draws an attention to the effectiveness of the partnership between maritime apprentices and their instructors across a maritime simulation training complex scheme during a virtual maritime scenario event in an advanced facilities located in the state of Florida, which is armed with modern technology, provides both added stimulation for the apprentice himself and elevates the simulator a degree toward a vessel for practical training and/or sailing.

In-scene glint greatly affect the usability of maritime imagery and several glint removal algorithms have been developed that work well in some situations. However, glint removal algorithms produce several unique artifacts when applied to very high resolution systems, particularly those with temporally offset bands. The optimal solution to avoid these artifacts is to avoid imaging in areas of high glint. The glint avoidance tool (GAT) was developed to avoid glint conditions and provide a mea- sure of parameter detectability. This work recreates the glint avoidance tool using Hydrolight, as a validation of a fast GAT using an in-water radiative transfer model which neglects in-water scattering. Because avoiding glint is not always possible, this research concentrates on the impact of glint and residual artifacts using RIT's Digital Imaging and Remote Sensing Image Generation (DIRSIG) dynamic wave model and Hydrolight back-end to create accurate case 1 synthetic imagery. The synthetic imagery was used to analyze the impact of glint on automated anomaly detection, glint removal, and development of a new glint compensation technique for sensors with temporally offset bands.

Motivated by the critical role of the inland waterways in the United States' transportation system, this dissertation research focuses on pre- and post- disruption response support when the inland waterway navigation system is disrupted by a natural or manmade event. Following a comprehensive literature review, four research contributions are achieved. The first research contribution formulates and solves a cargo prioritization and terminal allocation problem (CPTAP) that minimizes total value loss of the disrupted barge cargoes on the inland waterway transportation system. It is tailored for maritime transportation stakeholders whose disaster response plans seek to mitigate negative economic and societal impacts. A genetic algorithm (GA)-based heuristic is developed and tested to solve realistically-sized instances of CPTAP. The second research contribution develops and examines a tabu search (TS) heuristic as an improved solution approach to CPTAP. Different from GA's population search approach, the TS heuristic uses the local search to find improved solutions to CPTAP in less computation time. The third research contribution assesses cargo value decreasing rates (CVDRs) through a Value-focused Thinking based methodology. The CVDR is a vital parameter to the general cargo prioritization modeling as well as specifically for the CPTAP model for inland waterways developed here. The fourth research contribution develops a multi-attribute decision model based on the Analytic Hierarchy Process that integrates tangible and intangible factors in prioritizing cargo after an inland waterway disruption. This contribution allows for consideration of subjective, qualitative attributes in addition to the pure quantitative CPTAP approach explored in the first two research contributions.

Memories that are written down become history, and they "are texts that have their own literary form." This dissertation examines ordinary seafarers' memories of horrific maritime events and observes those written recollections described in maritime narratives as tragic reminders of a brutal and perilous maritime world. Seafarers experienced tragedy and their memories of those events are a historical indicator of both their social legacies and communal endeavors. Yet these same maritime narratives describe the reality of what America's maritime heritage looked like, from the American Revolution until the American Civil War, and the risks that awaited young men at sea. This dissertation examines the memories of ordinary American seamen, mainly young New Englanders, all of whom experienced traumatic maritime events and each set his recollections to paper in the form of memoirs or autobiographies. It assesses seafarers' narratives as a historical genre distinct from, yet complementary to, the literary work of such seamen-novelists as Herman Melville. The writings of some sailors about their traumatic pasts acted as a coping mechanism to come to terms with harrowing memories. Other sailors, capitalizing on their social and cultural capital, sought to intertwine their memories and traumatic exposures within a life-story to suggest that their worthiness to be thought common American "heroes" was not simply owing to their survival, but to diligence and pursuit of greatness. The traumatic reality of the maritime world has been shaped by literary and popular fictional culture, but the collective memories formed in fiction were motived by reality. The memories of American sailors--notably privateers, impressed seafarers, whalemen, and nautical abolitionists--are what inspired these fictions. These seamen are all historically connected, even if living at different times, sailing the ocean for diverse reasons, and facing varying oceanic dangers. This connection is observed through the types of memories they reflected on and how each sailors "sea eye" witnessed a dark side of the maritime world. This dissertation seeks to initiate a rereading of those nautical tales and a renewed emphasis on their disturbing memories as keys to observing that elusive, and perilous, maritime world they each sailed into.

My dissertation traces how the interplay of trafficking and regulation shaped free trade in the Arabian Sea. It explores trafficking in the littoral region stretching from western India to the Swahili Coast, as it evolved under colonial regulation. British officials wanted commercial practices in the Arabian Sea to conform to their perception of free trade, but their dedication to laissez-faire policies prevented them from intervening directly in trade. But smuggling provided the perfect justification for intervention. Colonial regulation focused on four illicit arenas that structured free trade: labor, security, finance and transportation. The suppression of the slave trade would produce wage labor. The suppression of the arms traffic would eliminate violence from trade. The regulation of currency arbitrage would create a stable monetary standard. Finally, the regulation of shipping would develop a transportation system which could incorporate distance into the calculation of price. Yet these regulatory efforts were frustrated by merchant networks which exploited the gaps in the enforcement of these regulations. Merchants co-opted regulators, circumvented regulations and evaded policing in order to structure transactions to their own advantage. Thus my dissertation demonstrates how free trade in the Arabian Sea was framed through this intricate interplay of trafficking and regulation.

This dissertation is an inquiry into spatial aspects of control, resistance and communication in the Dutch East India Company (VOC), as revealed by the architecture of its ships. The architectural type of the retourschip or "homeward bounder" is described and the history of its development, 16021795 is traced, with special attention paid to the period 1740-1783, when the richest records concerning ship design were produced and the ships reached their most standardized forms. The retourschip was one of the highest technological achievements of its day and was used as an emblem for military and mercantile power by the VOC. The ship's role and meaning as an armature for the VOC's ideological constructs is examined. Ships also, in Paul Gilroy's words, constituted "microcultural, micro-political systems," with their own social and spatial orders. These orders are explored, along with their ideological uses as structuring models for VOC society. Changes to the spatial design of the retourschip through the period of the VOC's operation are linked to changes in the social structure aboard and to changes in the status of VOC mariners, officers and captains. Finally, the effects and effectiveness of the retourschip as a structuring model are interrogated using several mutinies, with special attention paid to the 1763 mutiny on the retourschip Nijenburg. The role of shipboard space in structuring mutinous actions is explored, as is the role of mutinies in forming the society of VOC mariners. Through the records of Admiralty and colonial court trials the socio-spatial order aboard the Nijenburg is closely examined both under the command of its VOC-appointed captain and under that of the mutineers, and the two conditions compared. Mutineers are shown to appropriate and subvert the VOC's socio-spatial organization, while trial records are shown to reconstruct the social categories of the ship, incorporating mutiny into the Company's dominant discourse.

This study examines the Zheng organization, which flourished from 1625 to 1683, during a time when the Ming-Qing transition in China intersected with the formation of an integrated early modern economy in maritime Asia. This quasi-governmental commercial enterprise reached the apex of its power under Zheng Chenggong (1624-1662), and his son and successor Zheng Jing (1642-1681). From bases along the southeastern Chinese coast and Taiwan, they relied upon overseas commerce to maintain a sustained resistance against the Manchus, who had taken over most of China in 1644 from the collapsing Ming, the ethnic Chinese dynasty to which both men had pledged their support. Like their fiercest competitor, the Dutch East India Company (VOC), the organization protected the safety and property of Chinese subjects abroad, engaged in armed trade, and aggressively promoted overseas expansion. Zheng Chenggong and Jing proved far more successful and profitable at these endeavors than the VOC. In 1662, shortly before his death, Chenggong even defeated and expelled the company from its colony of Taiwan, and opened the island for Chinese colonization and settlement.Yet, operating within an imperial world order that looked upon overseas contact of any form as a potential source of political instability, the Zhengs, lacking "native" maritime sources of legitimacy, had to receive recognition for their authority from continental centers of power. Father and son skillfully utilized the ranks and titles from the Ming Yongli pretender to rule over territory, develop a civil bureaucracy, and sign treaties with foreign powers, functioning essentially as an autonomous "state." Moreover, by successfully intermediating between continental and maritime Chinese cultural discourse, they forged a complex social unit of traders, militarists, and Ming imperial descendants and loyalist elites. However, this ambiguous arrangement, which gave the organization maximum autonomy and flexibility, came under threat due to the gradual consolidation of Qing rule.Chenggong's successor, Zheng Jing, turned away from Ming symbols of authority on Taiwan during the 1660s, and tried to institutionalize a new identity based upon Han Chinese customs and Confucian moral values on an island considered by contemporaries to be geographically and culturally outside of "China." In negotiations with the Qing court, he pressed hard for the emperor to recognize Taiwan as a tributary kingdom along the lines of Korea. The talks broke down, however, over ethnic identity, as Zheng insisted upon keeping his Han Chinese long hair and flowing robes, while the Qing ruler ordered him to shave his head and wear tight riding jackets in the Manchu style. Despite the failure of negotiations, Zheng took significant steps toward articulating a distinct Han Chinese state. He traded extensively, signed a commercial treaty with the English East Indies Company, and nearly launched an invasion of the Spanish Philippines. However, his return to China to participate in the Rebellion of the Three Feudatories (1674-1681) ruined his organization and paved the way for the Qing invasion and occupation of Taiwan in 1683, two years after his death.This project moves beyond the standard Confucian trope of the Zhengs as ardent Ming loyalists or the Western narrative of ruthless pirate entrepreneurs, extreme discourses later appropriated to serve different nationalisms. Instead, the two men should be viewed as both the initiators and products of a dynamic and internally generated East Asian modernity within an interdependent economic and cultural region that nonetheless enjoyed significant interactions outside the system. Such an approach imbues maritime China with agency and revises the role commonly attributed to it as a marginalized appendage of its bureaucratic and agrarian continental counterpart. An examination of interstate relations unique to this East Asian world region also allows one to conceive of communities beyond the nation-state, and make sense of their identity formation and change, especially when combined with shifts in spatial settings.

The sea breeze circulation forms as a result of differential heating across the land-sea surface interface. The resultant pressure gradient force (PGF) induces an onshore flow at the surface and a return flow higher in the atmosphere. The sea breeze front is a reflection of this circulation, a boundary between the cool, moist, maritime air mass advancing landward and the warm, dry ambient air mass in place over inland areas. Studies have shown that the circulation forms more often in the spring and summer months when the temperature difference between land and sea surfaces is greatest. The following study is based on the analysis of satellite imagery and standard hourly measurements of air temperature, dewpoint, wind speed, and wind direction recorded at four coastal sites: Savannah, GA, Charleston and Myrtle Beach, SC, and Wilmington, NC. One of the objects of this study is to establish specific values associated with the changes induced by passage of the sea breeze front, and to examine differences in the station-to-station incarnation of the sea breeze circulation. Variability from station to station in the nature and timing of sea breeze frontal passage was found to be a function of relative proximity to the coast. For example, sea breeze frontal passage was found to occur earliest at Myrtle Beach (the closest station to the coast), around 1300 LST on average. Savannah, the farthest of the four coastal sites from the water, was affected by the sea breeze last, with an average passage time of between 1630 and 1700 LST. Previous studies indicate that the extent to which the circulation and associated front penetrate inland is usually on the order of about 20-60 km. GOES satellite imagery was accumulated from the North Carolina State Climate Office and analyzed with GIS (Geographic Information System) software for the purpose of determining the inland horizontal extent of the sea breeze circulation. Penetration distances of 20-40 km were common, but occasionally the sea breeze penetrated as far as 80 to 120 km. The second part of this study attempts to develop a scheme for the prediction of the development and evolution of the sea breeze front. The factors most significant to this prediction include the synoptic wind flow regime and values for the temperature difference between land and sea surfaces. North American Regional Reanalysis data were downloaded and analyzed to gather daily geostrophic wind vectors. Water temperature data were collected and compared with air temperature measurements to determine the temperature difference, the driving mechanism for sea breeze development. Data for the Myrtle Beach site were analyzed first to provide a framework for the other stations because of relative completeness and reliability of the data sources. At Myrtle Beach, ninety percent of sea breeze development occurred with land-sea temperature differences of 2.0 degrees Celsius or higher.

In eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century Britain, sailors occupied a paradoxical place in the national imagination. They were idealized as the heroic defenders of the nation, yet they were also stigmatized as brutish, misanthropic, and promiscuous. Naval officers described the common seaman (Jack Tar) as an impulsive boy-man whose unruly emotions required a firm regimen of discipline and control, including violent conscription (the press gang) and severe punishments (the cat o'nine tails). This dissertation examines the sailors' struggle to develop their own political voice, and their efforts to persuade the British public---and Britain's rulers---that they deserved both the respect of the nation and the benefits of traditional British liberties. To make the case for these new rights, sailors laid claim to new emotions, deploying the language of sensibility, domesticity, and injured manhood in their songs, petitions, and autobiographies. At the same tune, sailors tried to establish themselves as paragons of British and imperial virtues by self-consciously cultivating a tough, patriotic, and emphatically heterosexual identity. The idealization of the true British seaman had adverse consequences for sailors from overseas, particularly those from imperial possessions in Asia and Africa, who were called mongrels by the British seamen and classified by the Home Office as undesirables to be promptly repatriated. Although it was possible for sailors to acquire a kind of political and moral legitimacy through displays of loyalism, sailors who appeared foreign met with little success in claiming a British identity.