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In this paper, the development and the first three months of a reading program in which university students tutor junior high school students with reading skill deficiencies are described. In section 1, an introduction, the literacy problem that exists in the United States and the basic rationale for the tutoring approach as a solution to this problem are briefly discussed. In section 2, the development of the tutoring program is described, and some of the problems involved in coordinating efforts between a university and a public school are outlined. In section 3, an overview of the program is provided, the tutors and the students are described, and the program is detailed. In section 4, an objective evaluation of the program based on personal observations, observations of tutors, and the statements of students is presented. In section 5, recommendations for improvements in the program are made. (RB)

The emphases of the reading center proposed in this study are on the assessment of reading strengths, the isolation of reading deficiencies, and--in an instructor-learner environment--diagnosis and the prescription of action which will enable students to master the reading skills necessary for independent reading in their high school careers. This study focuses on an operational philosophy and the goals for the center, diagnostic and assessment techniques, prescriptive teaching strategies and performance objectives, a means of evaluating the center and its services, a plan for program implementation, and the specialized services offered by the center in cooperation with agencies located within the Educational Park facility. Included are a list of references and six appendixes containing material related to the activities of the center. (JM)

The purpose of this study was to compare the performance of ninth-grade slow readers with ninth-grade good readers and with sixth grade readers on a test of syntactic comprehension. The significant difference between the ninth-grade good readers' and the ninth-grade slow readers' performance on A Test of Sentence Meaning (ATSM), developed by Albert D. Marcus, clearly shows that comprehension of syntactic structure is an element in total reading comprehension. The low correlation between the total reading scores and the ATSM score would seem to indicate that it is not an important factor in reading at this level. The correlation of .70 between reading and the ATSM indicates that comprehension of syntactic structures is an important reading factor for sixth grade readers even on a survey reading test. It is suggested that the great difference in the correlations between the sixth-grade readers and the ninth-grade readers indicates that although these two groups measure on The Nelson Reading Test to be very similar with the same range and almost the same means, they must differ in at least one important respect. (LL)

Sixteen sixth-grade students participated in a study of the reasoning strategies employed by good and poor readers. Students, trained in applying introspective procedures, completed instruments that measured verbal reasoning, determining cause and effect, reading for inference, and determining main idea. Protocols obtained during five consecutive sessions were taped and transcribed. Results suggested that item type influenced choice of reasoning strategies for both groups. Incorrect responses seemed to result from a combination of item type and reasoning strategy. Rankings of frequency of use of strategies were similar for both groups, with "key lexical item" and "generalization" strategies used most frequently. Good readers were able to successfully use alternative strategies; poor readers showed greater variability in strategies chosen but were not as successful in selecting useful alternative strategies. (Author/AA)

Analyzed was the performance of 36 third grade children with various reading and articulation skills in blending selected syllables across three modes of presentation. Ss were divided into three groups: one with normal reading and speech skills, one with below grade-level reading skills and normal speech skills, and one with grade-level reading skills but exhibiting an articulation problem characterized by one or more defective speech sounds. Each S received a list of 81 stimuli divided into three modes of presentation (auditory, visual, and auditory-visual) within each of three mode types--vowel-consonant (VW), consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC), and consonant vowel-consonant (CV-C). CVCs were all familiar words while VCs were either real or nonsense words. Results indicated a significant effect for mode of presentation and syllable type, with the below grade-level reading group yielding the poorest performance in terms of correct responses in all modes and on all syllable types. The group with defective speech sounds usually produced the highest number of correct responses in all modes and on all syllable types. CV-C appeared to be the easiest syllable type to blend in all groups while CVC was the hardest. (Author/SBH)

This study focuses upon problems of language and reading disability among disadvantaged pupils in elementary and secondary school. Separate sections consider the evidence that such disabilities are a continuing problem; review remedial practices and existing programs; examine federal, state, and local programs aimed at such problems; formulate new approaches on the basis of an analysis of the best of previous attempts; and draw implications for the English curriculum at all levels. (AA)

Fifteen eight- and nine-year-old boys with reading disabilities and 15 with normal reading ability participated in a study of the relationships among reading disabilities, oral syntax, and temporal functioning ability (sequencing and the ability to perceive relationships in time). Each subject was given an individual battery of tests which included a measure of receptive vocabulary, five measures of oral syntactic abilities, and five measures of temporal functioning ability. Results indicated that the two groups did not differ significantly in receptive vocabulary, but that the five syntactic measures and the five measures of temporal functioning ability were predictive of group membership. The syntactic measures and the measures of temporal functioning were significantly related to each other. Results were interpreted as supporting the theory that temporal functioning ability is an important aspect of all language and contributes to the relationship between problems in oral syntax and reading disability. (Author/AA)

The purpose of this study was to use the case study method to diagnose and analyze disabled college readers and to determine their specific reading deficiencies. The subjects for this study were black male freshman volunteers, between the ages of 19 and 24, enrolled in a small, church related college in the Southwest. Negative environmental factors were found in the home and school. Positive and negative self-concepts were found, and personality disturbances were evidenced. Disabilities were found in word recognition skills, comprehension, and rate of reading. And oral reading reflected the disabilities found in word recognition skills. It was concluded that the level of the disabilities and the specific deficiencies of the subjects were representative of a cumulative educational deficit. (Author/RB)

The effect of dialect mismatch and possible interference in performing certain reading tasks was the focus of this study. One hundred twenty black, Gullah-speaking, fourth- and fifth-grade students who were approximately two years below grade level in reading comprised the subject group. Two groups of 30 subjects each were given a Standard English version of a short story, while two groups received the English-based Creole rendition. Question-and-answer options were provided in both Standard English and Gullah dialect. Statistical analysis revealed that an overall preference for materials written in Standard English existed for most subjects, especially females. In addition, fifth-grade students showed stronger preference for the Standard English version than did fourth-grade students. While no significant difference in reading comprehension was apparent between groups, the subjects receiving the question-and-answer options in Gullah scored higher than did those who were given the English version. While rejecting the notion of an expressed preference by Gullah-speaking students for materials written in their own dialect, this investigation partially supported the thesis that a dialect mismatch produces an interference effect in reading comprehension. (Author/KS)

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of two methods of teaching reading upon reversal errors. A sample of 210 pupils in grades one through four were selected for this study. One half of the group had learned to read through an analytic method while the other half had learned through a synthetic method. Since the synthetic group had also used a typewriter in learning to read, this study also examined the effects of training in directionality as well as Orton's assumption that reversal errors are manifestations of an underlying tendency to reverse the direction of scan. The groups were matched according to grade level, IQ scores, and reading test scores. Data were analyzed from three administrations of three different test form/mode presentations. Results showed that there were no significant differences between the reversal mean test scores of the two groups for all grade levels and that the main effects of grade levels with the combined groups were found to be significant at the .05 level. Also Orton's assumption regarding directional scan was not supported because children in the first grade made significantly more errors than did children in grades two through four, regardless of method of teaching reading. (Author/JM)

This study compared the performance of three groups of reading disabled students: those who were tutored by supervised parents, those who were tutored by unsupervised parents, and those who were not tutored. The subjects were 159 first-, second-, and third-grade children who read at least one year below grade level. The parents who tutored their children used an instructional guide for a ten-week period during the summer months. In addition, the supervised parents were required to attend weekly instructional workshop meetings in order to hear formal presentations regarding the program and were supervised individually each week by the author. At the end of the ten-week period, the results suggested that parental tutoring efforts were not significantly different for the children of either the supervised tutors or the unsupervised tutors. However, parental tutoring was effective in increasing children's scores in some reading subskills on the posttests. (Author/MKM)

All of the students, both black and white, in three ninth-grade English classes in rural southwest Virginia were taped reading a specified passage. They then wrote at least one page in response to questions and completed the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test. The tapes and writing samples were analyzed for the presence of specified phonological and grammatical features. Results indicated that the students utilized distinct and identifiable dialect features in their oral reading and in their writing. Higher use of grammatical features of dialect by both black and white students, and of phonological features of dialect by black students, was associated with lower reading comprehension. Such dialect interference was greater for black than for white students. In general, dialect features utilized in oral reading were more indicative of dialect interference than were those utilized in writing. (Author/AA)

This study was conducted to determine if dependency as manifested by the preschool child is predictive of reading disability. Case studies were conducted using seventeen disabled readers, nine boys and eight girls, of average or above average ability from the third grade in two schools on Long Island. Preschool dependency was determined by a retrospective parent questionnaire, while current school dependency was examined through a teacher observational checklist and a questionnaire administered to the children by the researcher. Informal discussion with the mothers brought out factors of dependency evident in the case of six of the seven high and three of the five high-average dependency-prone subjects. Since preschool dependency was evident in more than half the cases and was carried over to the school situation, it was hypothesized that dependency can be predictive of reading disability. The ordinal position of the child was shown to be an important factor in determining the degree of dependency, and the dependency evidenced could be attributed to infantilization on the part of parents and/or siblings. (Author/MKM)

This study investigated the efficacy of four different reading treatments for reading disabled children. EMG biofeedback training for suppression of subvocalization and individualized reading instruction were combined in an orthogonal design to assess their independent and combined effects on subvocalization, comprehension, and vocabulary mastery. A total of 24 sixth grade students from two elementary schools in a Detroit suburb met the following criteria: subvocalization during silent reading, vocabulary reading score of 1.8 years below grade level, and reading comprehension 1.5 years below grade level. Following the eight-week training program, these results were obtained: biofeedback training during silent reading significantly suppressed subvocalization, individualized reading instruction did not significantly reduce subvocalization during silent reading, students receiving the individual reading instrument with biofeedback training demonstrated the greatest gains on vocabulary subtests, regular reading instruction with biofeedback training was most effective in reducing subvocalization, and students receiving regular reading instruction demonstrated significant gains on the Standard Achievement Recording System. (Author/JM)

The main purpose of this study was to structure and compare two series of grapheme-phoneme correspondence and phonics generalizations. The first series of correspondences and generalizations is designed for seriously disabled readers in grades 3-9 and was derived through a phonemic analysis of the first 1,500 words of the Heritage list ( The American Heritage Word Frequency Book ). The second series of correspondences and generalizations is designed for high school and adult seriously disabled readers and was derived through a phonemic analysis of the first 1,500 words of the Computational list ( Computational Analysis of Present-Day American English ). Grapheme-phoneme correspondences yielded by an analysis of each list were charted. Overall, the Heritage list yields a total of 396 grapheme-phoneme correspondences. The Computational list's total correspondences number 406. These findings highlight the complexities of English spelling and the need to incorporate all productive features of regularity into a decoding program for disabled readers. (Author/LL)

This study sought to determine the reading proficiency of fourth-grade children in North Dakota and to ascertain the assistance that was provided for disabled readers by the schools and by classroom teachers. A sample of 2,069 fourth graders in 57 North Dakota school districts participated in the study. The Iowa Tests of Basic Skills and the Lorge Thorndike Intelligence Test were administered by school district personnel. The investigator and a group of 23 trained diagnosticians individually tested potential disabled readers with the Slosson Intelligence Test for Children and Adults and the Informal Reading Inventory. Among the results was the finding that, of the 284 disabled readers identified, 33.45% received supplementary instruction. Some 78% of the disabled readers were not placed appropriately for instruction in reading; 82% of the time, grade level materials were prescribed to disabled readers. (Author/AA)

This study sought to determine if eight selected variables would discriminate between the remediated reading group and the not-remediated reading group of 1,224 learning disabled children involved in an individualized diagnostic reading program, in grades one to six. The Slosson Intelligence Test was administered prior to placement in the program. The Gray Oral Reading Tests were administered before and after the eight-month study. The relationships between reading growth and grade placement, sex, IQ, socioeconomic status, schools, and time spent in the program were also investigated. Discriminant analysis was used to determine which combination of variables were useful in the correct classification. Two variables, time (which was inversely related) and gain necessary to reach grade level, were discriminant factors in remediation. In an analysis of covariance applied to reading growth, significant effects were found for IQ, grade placement, schools, and the interaction between grade placement and sex. (Author/AA)

Word-recognition behavior of 50 high school students two or more grade levels below their age mates in tests of reading comprehension was contrasted with that of 25 controls from the same schools, who were reading at grade level. The experiment included a section in which pictures (flashed, like the words, at 1/100 of a second) were to be identified, in order to explore the relationship of word-perception difficulties to broader visual-perception problems. Results indicated that adolescents with low reading-comprehension scores also had difficulty reading individual words presented at short flash durations, though they did not have difficulty recognizing pictures. Regression analyses indicated that such factors as length, frequency, concreteness, and pleasantness were good predictors of test-subjects' errors (but not of controls' errors). Such factors as word stress pattern, grammatical category, and morphological and derivational complexity also affected the recognition success of test subjects but not of controls. There were qualitative, as well as quantitative, differences between the errors made by test subjects and by controls. (Author/AA)

Forty-two first, second, and third grade students participated in a 15-week study to determine the effects of audiovisual aids on reading achievement. The students were pretested and posttested using the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills. Each group received 40 minutes of small group and individual instruction each day. The experimental group worked with audiovisual aids as a follow-up to teacher instruction. The audiovisual aids used were the System 80 machine, the Voxcom Audible Graphic System, and the tape recorder. The System 80 machine reinforced language skills, letter and sound recognition, sight vocabulary, spelling skills, and reading in context. The Voxcom System was used as a language master to enhance vocabulary and sight word development. The tape recorder and teacher-made tapes were used to aid in the development of listening skills and comprehension. Filmstrips and accompanying cassettes were employed to assist in the development of perception, word attack, and sequencing skills. Filmstrips and tapes of well-known children's books were also used to build an appreciation for reading and to promote creative writing. The results indicated that the use of audiovisual aids did not produce significant gains in reading achievement. (Author/FL)

Samples of government publications, legal documents, newspapers, paperback novels, and instruction manuals were among the items used in a study to determine the degree to which the readability levels of materials used by adults reflect an awareness of and adjustment to the average reading ability of the adult population. The readability levels of the items selected were determined using the Fry Readability Graph. When compared to the average reading ability of adults, it was found that materials in the leisure reading and news media categories showed definite consideration of readership ability. However, the data also indicated that in the areas of political, legal, and consumer economics materials, the readability levels of the sampled items far surpassed the average adult's level of reading skills. (Author/FL)

Forty-five third-grade and fourth-grade boys identified by their schools as being both normal in intelligence and severely disabled in reading were given a battery of tests of language, visual perception, silent reading comprehension, and finger agnosia. Three consistent groups of subjects emerged from cluster analyses of the results. One group was identified as perceptually disabled and a second group as language disabled. The third group did not deviate significantly from the overall group's mean scores on either the perception test or the language test. The three groups differed significantly on one of two tests of silent reading comprehension; performance on silent reading comprehension was most significantly related to performance on the language tests. Although proportionately more subjects in the perceptually disabled group failed the finger agnosia tests, the difference only approached statistical significance (.07). (Author/AA)

Forty-five sixth-grade students reading at least one year below expected levels participated in a study of the relationships among visual synthesis, oral synthesis, and reading achievement. Instruments constructed for the study included measures of visual synthesis, identification of individual printed syllables, and oral synthesis. Reading achievement and IQ scores were obtained from permanent records. Results indicated that the process of perceiving a word one syllable at a time and identifying that word as a whole was more difficult than both perceiving and identifying each syllable as an independent unit. Visual synthesis was significantly related to oral synthesis and to reading achievement but not to IQ; oral synthesis was significatnly related to IQ but not to reading achievement. (Author/AA)

The purpose of this study was to investigate the differences in reading strategies between good and poor readers in the first, second, third, and fifth grades. Three patterns of students' oral reading errors were analyzed on the Gray Oral Reading test. For the first pattern, occurrence of visually similar and grammatically acceptable errors, results from the scoring procedure based on the entire sentence indicate that good and poor readers in the first, second, and third grades are heavily influenced by the visual configuration of the original word, often disregarding the grammatical acceptability of the word. For the second pattern, occurrence of nonword and aid errors, it was found that poor readers made significantly more aid errors than did the good readers and that good readers at all levels made significantly more nonword errors than did poor readers. Analysis results for the third pattern, occurrence of errors within sentences and paragraphs, indicate that students make more errors in the beginning parts of easy sentences. However, this pattern did not hold true for difficult sentences nor for easy or difficult paragraphs. (Author/JM)

To determine the effectiveness of mathematical vocabulary training on the problem solving ability of third and fourth grade students, 66 students were placed into either an experimental or a control group. All were pretested and posttested with an experimental mathematics vocabulary test and with a standardized mathematics test. Mathematical vocabulary was then taught to the experimental group for eight weeks. The results favored the experimental group. There were significant differences between the gain scores of the two groups on both the vocabulary test and on the standardized test. The findings suggest that systematic mathematical vocabulary training increased the problem solving ability of third and fourth grade students. (Author/FL)

Forty-eight 15-year-olds diagnosed as learning disabled by school personnel were administered the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test. Analysis of results indicated that there were significant correlations among subtests of the WISC, among subtests of the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test, and between subtests in the two batteries; that pupils categorized as high verbal did somewhat better in word identification, word comprehension, passage comprehension, and total reading scores; and that the total reading scores were significantly related to the discrepancy between Verbal IQ and Performance IQ on the WISC. (Author/AA)

Four randomly selected classes of learning-disabled children (N = 46) participated in a study of the effect of paradigmatic training in oral language skills on specific reading abilities. Two classes used the Key to Learning series as the experimental treatment, and two classes served as a control group. Tests of reading skills and of paradigmatic language structures were administered as pretests, posttests, and follow-up measures; Stanford-Binet intelligence scores were used to divide students into high-ability and low-ability groups prior to testing. Analysis of results indicated that children who received special training performed significantly better on all criterion measures, that gains were rapid and positive for the experimental group, that intellectual ability did not interact with treatment or time of testing, and that training did interact with treatment. Results were interpreted as indicating that paradigmatic language behaviors are teachable and testable and that they represent an important skill in oral and written communication. (Author/AA)

Reading programs in community colleges of Florida are described, based on the responses of 52 community college reading instructors (63% return) to a guestionnaire and a "Job Activities Rating Scale." Information is provided on the educational background of the instructors, with emphasis on specific training in the teaching of reading; the instructors' opinions about their training; the instructors' teaching experience; characteristics of the reading programs; activities which constitute the job of the reading instructors; the instructors' attitudes about the relative importance of their duties; and the most commonly used instructional and diagnostic reading materials. (Author/GW)

This dissertation presents a systematic review of literature published from 1861-1974 and available in English which deals with children who may be classified as learning disabled by current federal law. The purposes of the review were to trace the studies of behaviors related to learning disabilities, to identify key studies on which later investigations were based, to identify the implications of suspected etiological factors, to suggest promising areas of research, and to provide a reference document. More than 543 studies were reviewed for possible relevance; 432 were chosen for inclusion. Studies include recognized major works which provided the basis for later investigations; studies based on results of standardized testing measures and used to classify types of learning disabilities; investigations of phenomena cited by authorities as causal factors in learning disabilities, and investigations of cross-modal integration, physiological reactions during learning tasks, IQ in relation to learning disabilities, and the importance of psychological factors in learning disabilities. (Author/GW)

This study presents guidelines that were designed as references to help professionals and paraprofessionals create new resources or modify existing materials to meet the changing needs, interests, and abilities of persons with reading problems. Four procedures were used to develop the guidelines and to test their validity: materials that were used to develop 12 low-reading-level pamphlets and to prepare resource materials for the special-needs learner were examined; the home economists that designed the pamphlets were interviewed; 30 people that used the pamphlets were interviewed; and a 12-member professional jury evaluated data generated by the first three procedures. Results of the study indicate that the guidelines are useful and much needed by those people engaged in helping"low-literate" individuals improve the quality of their lives. (Author/RL)

The document presents a course designed to help underprepared community college students improve their reading skills and a discussion of the adult education learning principles upon which it is based. An introductory section reviews the literature pertaining to principles of adult education, and the differences between adult learning needs and the needs of children and adolescents, in terms of self-concept, experience, readiness to learn, and orientation to learning. Background information, rationale, course development procedures, and a research design for course evaluation are discussed. The semester-long course, designed for those adult students with a reading level below the eleventh grade, enables the teacher to work with a wide variety of student skills. Course objectives and detailed performance objectives are outlined for literal comprehension, interpretation, vocabulary development, study/reference skills, and application of skills. Adult teaching strategies, instructional resources, and the course outline, which includes the scope and sequencing of the skills to be mastered, are also presented. (LH)

Discipline records and reading test scores revealed that students in the Redding Middle School (Middletown, Delaware) were achieving low reading scores while the number of discipline referrals remained high. This report of a practicum project shows how the school's teachers and administrators succeeded in changing the direction of this trend, increasing reading achievement while reducing discipline referrals. School staff developed a master checklist of objectives, activities, and strategies to implement major changes in school organization, staff training, reading programs, and discipline programs. They applied Bloom's theory of mastery learning to improve student competency in reading through sequential instruction, assessment, and achievement feedback. Glasser's theory of reality therapy provided students and teachers with practical problem-solving strategies for dealing with potential discipline problems before administrative intervention. Summative evaluation data show a 20% reduction in referrals and a substantial increase in reading achievement scores (compared to students' reading scores in the four years preceding the project). Ten appendixes provide information about the materials used in the project and the data collected. (Author/RL)

This study focused on whether a supplemental program in structural analysis would improve the reading proficiency of children identified as deficient in the syntax and inflections of their language. Sixty-nine second-grade children, whose psycholinguistic ages were determined by scores on a grammatic closure test, to be six months or more below their chronological ages, were randomly assigned to three groups of 23 subjects each. During the study, one group received 60 minutes of basal instruction per day; one group received 45 minutes of basal instruction plus 15 minutes of free reading; and the third group received 45 minutes of basal instruction plus 15 minutes of a supplemental program in structural analysis. Analysis of the results indicated that 60 minutes of basal instruction per day is as effective, in terms of oral reading achievement, as is 45 minutes of basal reading instruction plus 15 minutes of structural analysis; but 45 minutes of basal instruction plus 15 minutes of free reading is inferior to both the other procedures. There was no significant difference in the silent reading scores of the three groups. (Author/GW)

This study investigates the effects of meaningful-learning postquestions on recall of relevant and incidental information by two groups of fifth graders, good and poor comprehenders. The two groups had 48 fifth graders each, selected from 228 students who took the New Developmental Reading Test and the Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test. Subjects were assigned to one of three question conditions: meaningful-learning postquestion, rote-learning postquestion, or no adjunct question of any type. As subjects read a passage concerning a common topic, they answered one of the question types following each two-paragraph segment of text. Two types of recall measures, free and cued, were scored. Resulting analyses of the recall measures supported the positions that rote, factual postquestions are more facilitative in free recall of facts and that meaningful-learning postquestions require subsumption of facts under ideas by poor comprehenders when cued recall measures are used. The study concludes that meaningful-learning postquestions are helpful to readers with adequate vocabulary skills but with low comprehension ability. (Author/RL)

The purpose of this study was to determine whether an intermodal training technique known as visual-haptic had any effect on the reading achievement of a group of disabled readers. The technique itself did not teach reading. Used in conjunction with a conventional remedial reading program, visual-haptic training was expected to serve as an orienting technique enabling disabled readers to attend to the critical aspects of decoding symbolic material and thus improve their scores on a test of reading. Seventy-two fourth graders previously identified as disabled readers were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: visual-haptic group, haptic-visual group, or control group. Each subject was exposed to the training conditions for 10 minutes a day, 4 days a week, for 6 weeks. The control group was given 10 minutes of free drawing activities. An analysis of covariance yielded significant differences on each of the seven variables tested (vocabulary, comprehension, syllabication, beginning and ending sounds, auditory discrimination, blends, sound discrimination). The study concluded that the remediation of reading disabilities is enhanced when it is associated with a training program emphasizing the multisensory approach. (Author/WR)

The purposes of this study were to evaluate the effect of a diagnostic structured kindergarten program on the predicted reading levels of disadvantaged urban children and to compare the effect of this program with the effect of the traditional kindergarten curriculum. The subjects were 196 children in eight kindergarten classes. More than 70% of the children were from low socioeconomic homes, and over 60% of the children were predicted as reading failures by the pretest. The experimental treatment was that one hour of each three-hour kindergarten session was spent in structured learning activities planned to develop specific cognitive competencies and conceptual skills related to reading. The activities took place at learning centers in small instructional groups. Learning activities related to specific cognitive areas were planned for each center. The control group had free play and free choice activities scheduled during this hour each day. The Jansky Predictive Index of Reading Performance (JPIRP) was used as the criterion measure of predicted reading levels and was given as a pretest and posttest. The results indicated that the diagnostic structured program raised the JPIRP index scores a significant amount for predicted reading failure children. (Author/WR)

The purpose of this study was to find factors related to the success in reading of low-income white children in high schools in five West Virginia counties. The study asked whether disadvantaged students who succeed in reading differ significantly from disadvantaged students who fail in reading: (1) in the amount of their participation in physical activities; (2) in the amount of their participation in social activities; (3) with regard to preference for solitary activities; (4) by having parents who encourage them to read by providing books and other reading material; (5) by having parents who value an education; (6) by having been read to by parents, other adults, or by siblings; (7) in the degree of identification with school; (8) with regard to a positive affiliation with their teacher; (9) with regard to the method by which they learned to read; or (10) by having at least one teacher who has shown a personal interest in them. The students were interviewed in school, their parents were interviewed in the home, and their teachers were interviewed at home or in school. Significant differences were found for use of free time, influence of the home environment, parents' role, and teacher influence. (Author/WR)

The purpose of this study was to survey the provisions for corrective reading in the public elementary schools, particularly in the availability of services, the types of services offered, the degree of satisfaction, and the financial support for remedial programs. A questionnaire was mailed to 412 schools, selected by a stratified random sampling procedure from the "Directory of Public Elementary and Secondary Day Schools." Public schools which included any of the elementary grades, one through eight, were surveyed. Three mailings resulted in an 85.4 percent response of which 82.8 percent were suitable for analysis. Results indicated that: (1) more than four out of five public elementary schools have programs for specialized reading; (2) programs which were discontinued were cut mainly due to lack of funds or insufficient effectiveness; (3) about half of the school children are in systems with a reading coordinator who is shared by six schools; (4) 85 percent of the coordinators work with children, primarily in diagnosis; (5) one-fourth of the children have access to clinics, 60 percent of which are maintained by the public schools; (5) about half of the schools report that the regular classroom teacher does remedial work; and (6) the average number of boys receiving help is 40 and girls, 27.5. (Author/WR)

The purpose of this transcendental phenomenological study was to describe the lived experiences of Tier 3 early reading intervention providers at the Urban Independent School District in Texas three years after a school closure. The central research question was, what are the lived experiences of Tier 3 early reading intervention providers in the Urban Independent School district three years after a school closure? Sub-questions explored early reading intervention providers’ beliefs, attitudes, mental states, and actions three years after a school closure. This study was guided by two central theories: the Vygotskian sociocultural theory of human learning and Bandura’s self-efficacy theory. Moustakas’ transcendental phenomenological model was used to identify the phenomenon’s essence. Data were collected and triangulated using participant interviews, letter writing, and open-ended questionnaires. Data were analyzed and synthesized into six themes and 17 subthemes. Participants believe that students were negatively impacted academically and socially by the Covid-19-related school closure but generally have a positive attitude about changes implemented by UISD as a response to the school closure. Upon returning to in-person learning, participants expressed that their mental state was in a state of anxiety and tension as the needs of students were significant. The actions of intervention providers had to be intentional in meeting the needs of the students. Overall, intervention providers at UISD want a systematic approach to interventions and believe their work is essential. This study brings an awareness of the importance of the role of Tier 3 intervention providers after a school closure.

Background: Children with reading difficulty exhibit deficits in multiple cognitive areas (e.g., language skills, working memory, processing speed). Therefore, evaluation of reading difficulty typically includes assessment of both academic functioning and general intelligence (IQ). Although the IQ construct is considered robust in the general population, emerging evidence suggests that the structure of IQ may differ for children with reading difficulty. However, no study to date has examined the structure of intelligence in this group using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition (WISC-V; Wechsler, 2014), which is a widely used measure of intelligence in children. Accordingly, the present study examines WISC-V performance in a sample of children referred for evaluation of reading difficulty. We hypothesize that children in our sample will have an average IQ but lower scores on verbal, working memory, and/or processing speed measures. We also hypothesize that, for children in our sample, the factor structure of WISC-V scores will not adhere to the presumed factor structure of the measure. Rather, we expect that a first-order factor model will offer better fit for the data than a higher-order factor model. Method: Participants were 109 children evaluated for suspected dyslexia in a clinic setting. Children who met the following criteria were included in the study: 1) English is first/primary language; 2) WISC-V Verbal Comprehension Index >= 70; 3) neurologically healthy (i.e., no history of TBI, epilepsy). IQ was assessed using the WISC-V, which comprises five cognitive Indexes reflecting five core factors of intelligence: Verbal Comprehension (VCI), Visual Spatial (VSI), Fluid Reasoning (FRI), Working Memory (WMI), and Processing Speed (PSI). Data Analysis: Independent sample t-tests were used to compare performance of children in the study sample with those in the WISC-V standardization sample. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to test six competing models to determine the best-fitting model for this sample. Model fit was evaluated using fit statistics and theoretical plausibility. Results: t-tests showed no significant difference between FSIQ in our sample compared to the normative sample. However, PSI was significantly lower for our sample while VCI was significantly higher. Within our sample, significant variability was observed within and across Indexes. Overall, results of CFA were consistent with our hypothesis, showing that a first-order five-factor model offered better fit for the data than a higher-order factor model. Conclusion: Results show that children in our sample demonstrated highly variable performance on the WISC-V and produced scores that fit best to a first-order rather than higher-order model. By examining the factor structure of WISC-V performance in this group, we provide an important perspective on the clinical utility of the WISC-V for children with reading difficulty. We suggest that a unitary IQ score may not provide an optimal representation of general intelligence for these children. Rather, their cognitive functioning may be best understood by examining individual cognitive domains. For these children, consideration of additional cognitive factors (e.g., rapid automatized naming, phonemic awareness) may be important for understanding their functioning.