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Module A of the OECD Higher Education Policy Survey (HEPS) 2022 elicited information on policies to promote digitalisation of higher education in OECD member and accession countries. In total, 30 jurisdictions responded, providing comparative information on various areas of digitalisation policy, from regulation and governance to financial and human resources. The survey results provide insight into the role of public authorities in guiding, coordinating and resourcing the digital transformation of higher education institutions. The analysis and comparative tables in this working paper provide insights that can support the development of strategic digitalisation policies.

With the widespread onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, Australian universities anticipated a significant loss of students and revenue and hence forecast the need for significant job reductions. Using Higher Education Statistics (HES) data on student numbers and full-time equivalent (FTE) staff by field of study, we explored changes which occurred between 2019 and 2020, this data only becoming publicly available in 2022. Against expectations, and with the exception of the field of study of Management and Commerce, nationally student numbers did not decline, but increased marginally. Our interest lay in the impact of this on casual academic staff employment in Australia's public universities, noting institutional strategies of having a flexible pool of casual staff to manage fluctuations in student demand. While the HES data does not allow firm conclusions, trends may become clearer with the release of the 2021 data. Nonetheless, it appears that many universities reduced casual academic staff numbers and marginally increased full and part time appointments. Overall, there were fewer academic staff to teach a static or increased number of students. What this exercise suggests is that irrespective of student enrolments, some universities may have used the pandemic as an opportunity for restructures and academic renewal. It also highlights the difficulties that universities may experience in managing their academic workforce.

The topic of more frequent and timely vocational education and training (VET) data has been an issue of interest for a number of years. Since 2015, the National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER) has collected and reported data on government-funded students and courses on a quarterly basis. These quarterly data submissions are cumulative and allow additional data to be reported and corrections made to previously submitted data. The first year of quarterly reporting has provided a useful insight into how training activity is reported by the different jurisdictions over a calendar year. This paper presents the results of some initial analysis of that data using the reporting scope that was in place for 2015 reporting, broadly defined as all activity delivered by government providers and government-funded activity delivered by community education and other registered providers.

This is a support document to the "Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY) 2009 Cohort User Guide" report. Developed for users of LSAY, the user guide consolidates information about the LSAY 2009 cohort into one document. This support document provides post-school information for the guide. [For the main report, "Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY) 2009 Cohort User Guide. Technical Paper 74," see (ED536971). For other support documents, see "Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY) 2009 Cohort User Guide: Data Elements A--Demographics. Technical Paper 74A" (ED536979); "Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY) 2009 Cohort User Guide: Data Elements B1--Education (School and School Transition). Technical Paper 74B1" (ED536973); "Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY) 2009 Cohort User Guide: Data Elements C--Employment. Technical Paper 74C" (ED536974); and "Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY) 2009 Cohort User Guide: Data Elements D--Social. Technical Paper 74D" (ED536972).]

Taking a gap year--a break between high school and university--is becoming increasingly popular with Australian students. In terms of length and purpose, the traditional notion of a gap year being a year off between school and university has expanded considerably over time. For the purposes of the analysis reported in this paper, a person who takes a gap year is defined as "an individual who commenced university one to two years after completing Year 12. This includes those who accept and defer their university placement for one to two years" (Curtis, Mlotkowski & Lumsden 2012). Highlights of this report include: (1) In Australia the incidence of taking a gap year has increased from 10% in the period 1999-2000 to 24% in 2009-10; (2) The top four primary activities undertaken by gap students in 2009-10 were work (51%), full-time study leading to a non-university qualification (10%), other study (6%), and travel (6%); (3) Characteristics of gap-takers include: (a) being academically less inclined than non-gap-takers; (b) living in regional locations when at school; (c) having English speaking backgrounds; (d) being employed when in Year 12 at school; and (e) being less likely to receive Youth Allowance payments while at school; (4) In their first year of university, gap-takers are more likely to study in the areas of education and creative arts; and (5) Those who don't take a gap year are substantially more likely at age 24 to be employed full-time and to work in professional occupations than gap-takers. Much of this difference can be attributed to the fact that, in terms of their careers, gap-takers are a year or two behind those who don't take a gap year. The data do not allow the authors to measure the longer-term outcomes of both groups because the Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY) stops at age 25. Appended are: (1) Gap year definitions; and (2) LSAY cohorts sample sizes and durations. (Contains 13 tables.) [For "Bridging the Gap: Who Takes a Gap Year and Why? Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth. Research Report," see ED533077.]

This paper was originally developed to help the Training and Skills Commission in South Australia consider the pathways between elements of the vocational education and training (VET) system, how they are working and what improvements can be made. It has been revised to make it national in scope. The authors reveal that quite substantial numbers of VET graduates go on to university level study or further study within VET itself. Significant numbers of university graduates also go on to study in VET. However, not all VET graduates choose to study at a higher level; a substantial proportion of students going on to further study do so at the same or lower level. This suggests that entitlement models need to consider horizontal (skills broadening) as well as vertical (only qualifications at a higher level) in their funding mix. Additional data tables are appended. (Contains 13 tables and 2 footnotes.)

This report reviews the use of loans for learning in 33 European countries and analyses the schemes in eight selected Member States: France, Hungary, the Netherlands, Austria, Poland, Finland, Sweden and the UK. The analysis shows that loan schemes vary considerably across Europe in terms of types and levels of learning covered, conditions of access, repayment and governance. Some loans aim to increase participation in learning in general, while others are designed to promote equity. The report attempts to assess the selected loans and discusses their strengths and weaknesses and determinants of performance, while considering if a given scheme operates on a large scale or targets niche groups. The evaluation results provide a basis for identifying good practice principles for designing and implementing loans. Policy recommendations are formulated based on these findings. Annexed are: (1) Methodology; (2) Key terms and definitions; (3) Information on countries/schemes selected for in-depth analysis; (4) Proposed typologies of VET loan schemes; (5) Tables and figures; (6) Tosmana truth tables; (7) Questionnaires; (8) Basic characteristics of non-European loan schemes. (Contains 37 tables, 5 figures, 20 boxes and 33 footnotes.)

This paper provides an analysis of revenue for and expenditure on Australian education institutions. It includes a review of funding from public and private sources and from overseas. Analyses are made for education as a whole and for the major sectors: schools, vocational education and training (VET) and higher education. Estimates are considered in current and constant prices. Analysis is made of changes in expenditure per student or hour of training. Consideration is given to non-institutional expenditures including student assistance and employer expenditures. In the last few years expenditures on educational institutions have grown in real terms by about 2 per cent per annum. Private expenditure and expenditure by overseas students have grown faster than public expenditure, though part of the expansion of private expenditures has been financed by government, such as grants to non-government institutions and advances to support the Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS). Most of the additional resources for education have gone to schooling. On average, both government and non-government schools have experienced continuing substantial growth in real expenditure per student. The total real resources in VET in 2001 were about the same as in 1997 but hours of training had increased by about 4 per cent per annum. There are various ways in which efficiencies have been pursued to offset the effects of the apparent reduction in resources per hour. An increased proportion of expenditure in this period went to non-TAFE (Technical and Further Education) providers and, as with universities, there was a reduction in the share of expenditure on personnel. In higher education there has been little growth in publicly funded Australian student numbers in recent years and a small decline in real public funding per student. The most notable changes are the continued growth in the proportion of the public expenditures funded through HECS and the expansion in fee paying overseas students and Australian students in postgraduate courses. The decline in staffing ratios in higher education is significantly larger than the decline in funding per student. The gap is a matter for further analysis. An appendix, The Nature of the VET Financial Data, is included. (Contains 9 footnotes and 32 tables.)

The combination of work and study has been hailed as crucial to ensure that youth develop the skills required on the labour market so that transitions from school to work are shorter and smoother. This paper fills an important gap in availability of internationally-comparable data. Using the 2012 Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), it draws a comprehensive picture of work and study in 23 countries/regions. Crucially, it decomposes the total share of working students by the context in which they work (VET [vocational education and training], apprenticeships or private arrangements) and assesses the link between field of study and students' work. The paper also assesses how the skills of students are used in the workplace compared to other workers and identifies the socio-demographic factors and the labour market institutions that increase the likelihood of work and study. Finally, while it is not possible to examine the relationship between work and study and future labour market outcomes at the individual level, some aggregate correlations are unveiled.

In recent years, the level of participation and attainment by Indigenous Australians in education and training has improved, yet substantial gaps still exist between Indigenous Australians and non-Indigenous Australians. Education has to be a key focus if the gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous employment rates is to be closed. This report draws from the 2011 Census data to quantify its importance for labour market participation, employment, and occupational destinations. The research is extensive and varied, and includes academic research articles published in refereed journals and other publications published or completed over the last 10 years. Also provided is the authors' own analyses of the 2006 and 2011 Census, and of data from the ABS (Australian Bureau of Statistics) Labour Force Survey, National Apprentices and Trainees Collection, National VET (Vocational Education and Training) Collection, the Schools Australia catalogue, and the Student Outcomes Survey. The authors use those to provide descriptive information as well as to investigate linkages between participation and attainment in education and training and employment. The report begins by providing a snapshot of key demographics, followed by information on participation and outcomes from senior secondary education, vocational education and training (including apprenticeships and traineeships), and higher education. This is followed by a detailed account of employment outcomes across regions and occupations. The role of educational attainment in explaining the disparity in employment rates is then given a special focus. This document reports on studies that have looked at the need to take into account the multiple elements of economic participation, and focuses in more detail on the role of social capital, cultural attachments, and employer discrimination. It concludes with an emphasis on key findings about the role of education and the need to streamline programs and strategies. Appendices provide extra detail on methodological approaches and programs (including key objectives, funding regimes, and program evaluations). They are as follows: (1) Methodology for decomposition; (2) Selected programs aimed at young people and their parents by participation or progress to date; (3) Selected programs aimed at VET and higher education by participation or progress to date; (4) Selected programs aimed at improving employment outcomes by participation or progress to date; and (5) Additional relevant material in the Clearinghouse.

This paper presents the first results of a project initiated in 2004 by the OECD in collaboration with Eurostat and the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, and aimed at developing a regular and internationally comparable production system of indicators on the careers and mobility of doctorate holders. A first data collection was launched in September 2005, from which the results for seven countries are presented here. These data shed light on the main demographic, educational, labour market and mobility patterns of doctoral graduates. They also mark some progress in the understanding of both the measurement issues and patterns of international mobility, notably by the use of qualitative indicators such as the intentions or reasons for mobility. The results show in particular that the share of doctorate holders in the population or labour force is two or three times larger in Germany and Switzerland than in Australia, Canada and the United States. In these five countries, women represent only one-quarter to one-third of doctorate holders. The United States has an older population of doctorate holders than the other countries analysed in the paper and this population is still aging, as is also the case in Canada. Unemployment rates of doctorate holders remain low, but are relatively higher in natural sciences and in engineering. There are important salary differences between men and women and across sectors, especially in the United States. In the United States, as well as in Portugal and Argentina, salary is one of the main reasons why doctoral graduates are dissatisfied with their employment situation. There is a high share of foreign doctorate holders in Switzerland and also a higher share of foreign-born doctorate holders in Canada and Australia than in the United States. Many foreigners, however, come to work to the United States having been trained for research abroad and this trend has grown stronger in recent years. On the other hand, very few doctorate holders from the United States are internationally mobile. Among mobile young Canadian citizens, three-quarters choose the United States as their next destination. (Data tables are annexed. Contains 4 footnotes, 13 figures, 1 chart and 35 tables.)

The "Guidelines for Quality Provision in Cross-Border Higher Education" were developed and adopted to support and encourage international cooperation and enhance the understanding of the importance of quality provision in cross-border higher education. The purposes of the "Guidelines" are to protect students and other stakeholders from low-quality provision and disreputable providers (that is, degree and accreditation mills) as well as to encourage the development of quality cross-border higher education that meets human, social, economic and cultural needs. The "Guidelines" are not legally binding and member countries are expected to implement them as appropriate in their national context. Based on a survey about the main recommendations of the "Guidelines", this report monitors the extent to which Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries and a few non-member countries comply with its recommendations. The Survey was sent out in June 2010 to all OECD countries. The main conclusion of the survey is that (responding) countries report a high level of compliance with the Guidelines recommendations. On average, responding OECD countries conform to 72% of the main recommendations made to governments, tertiary education institutions, and quality assurance and accreditation agencies. The level of compliance decreases to 67% when recommendations to student bodies are included, but the level of missing information, and thus uncertainty about actual compliance, increases significantly. Appended are: (1) Country Overview of Compliance Levels with the Guidelines for Different Stakeholders; (2) Country Overview of Compliance Levels with Six Key Objectives of the Guidelines; (3) Methodology; (4) Country Answers to the Survey; (5) Overview of National Contact Points; and (6) Guidelines for Quality Provision in Cross-Border Higher Education. (Contains 2 tables, 12 figures and 1 footnote.)

Sabbatical leaves are viewed as being essential to the ongoing nature of a self-renewing community of scholars. This study was undertaken to provide data on current use of sabbatical leave plans in universities in several countries - Canada; the United States; England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales; Australia, and New Zealand - to provide useful information for possible revision of leave plans. Sixty-six universities were surveyed by means of a questionnaire and the results revealed similarities among the four groups of countries regarding the length of service prior to leave (generally 6 years); differences among the four groups, including the use of retraining leaves as a form of sabbatical; salary paid during regular sabbatical leave; and travel expenses. The conclusions drawn from the data are that Canadian leave plans are not nearly as uniform as those in United States universities; Canadian plans have become more formalized and better documented since 1969; salary paid for full-year leaves in Canadian universities has improved since 1969 and is now substantially better than in the United States, but not as good as in Australia and New Zealand; and participation rates in all countries appear to be higher than those reported prior to 1965 by Ingraham. (JMF)

College enrollment trends were examined with attention to participation of women and youth, part- and full-time study, and qualifications of entering students. Findings include the following: in 1973 there was only one university in Western Australia, and the colleges sector consisted of five teacher training institutions and one institute of technology; in 1983 the colleges had amalgamated into one multi-campus college of advanced education and another university had been founded, making a total of four institutions in higher education; student enrollments increased by 65 percent; in 1973, 55 percent of university students were in the 17-21 age group, but by 1983 only 47 percent were in this age group; part-time enrollment in the college sector increased from 41 percent to 56 percent during the decade, while the percentage (38%) of part-time students in the university sector remained about the same; and part-time enrollment by women has increased notably. Data for the 1973-1983 period are provided on: enrollments by 17-21 year olds by sector and sex; male students as a proportion of total enrollments by sector and institution; part-time enrollments by sector and institution; full- and part-time enrollments; and the numbers of students beginning college directly from school. (SW)

A course for first-year architectural students is described. The approach concentrated on developing an understanding of the nature of design activity through exploration of the kind of thinking that may be applied in order to improve the first-year studio work. The course is based on the following premises: (1) it is possible and educationally desirable to separate a thinking process from any product that results from that process; and (2) beginning students bring with them knowledge and experience from their everyday life that provide a useful starting point for investigation of the activity of design, and it is desirable to proceed from this starting point. Studio work consistently differentiated between work relating to learning about the nature of design (process) and work where the end product of the process was the main concern. The pattern of work was: a project in which an intuitive approach towards satisfying certain design conditions was indicated; a series of projects aimed at exploring particular aspects of the process now shown to be a natural way of proceeding towards some desired future state and relating this to architectural needs; and an exercise designed to reach a satisfactory architectural expression meeting the conditions set. Projects included accommodation for architecture library in an existing space, accommodation for medical general practitioners, and an exhibition stand for solar energy hot water units. Implications of the approach for professional education are considered. (SW)

A set of four surveys conducted on behalf of the Committee of Inquiry into Education and Training (Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, Australian Government), 1977, is presented. The National Educational Survey, 1977, was a survey of 8000 students enrolled in the major sectors of post-secondary education in Australia: universities, colleges of advanced education, and technical and further education colleges. It interlocks with the National Survey of Post-Secondary Teaching Staff, of which there were three versions tailored to each of the major sectors. Some 4000 staff members were surveyed. The major variables of the National Education Survey were students' career planning and history, quality of the educational experience, and expectations for the future. The staff survey probed career paths of teaching staff, assessments of the educational experience being offered to students, and their views on the future of post-secondary education in Australia. Many questions were common to all four surveys, permitting inter-survey comparisons for selected items. As the first nationwide survey of the post-secondary education system, the data are of considerable significance for the establishment of national and cross-sectoral norms. Several variables are also suitable for international comparisons. (Author/PN)

A survey was conducted through the School of External Studies and Continuing Education at the University of Queensland in 1985 to ascertain the extent of foreign language teaching at a distance in Australian higher education institutions, and to seek information on a wide range of services and facilities provided to students. Of the 868 students surveyed, 358 (41%) responded to questions presented under the headings of General Information, Student Characteristics, Course Information, Seminar/Tutorial Attendance, Library Facilities, Study Centers, Assignments, Method of Assessment, Teaching, Objectives, and Assessment of Courses and Comments. Students were invited to comment on any aspect of their courses and to express their opinion on the efficacy of teaching languages at a distance. Data on programs in 14 languages at six universities and the students enrolled in them are presented in 27 tables with a minimum of interpretative comment. (DB)

The challenge of funding a high quality higher education system, ensuring it has the capacity to help meet the increasing demand for high level skills in our economy and the aspirations of our students, has been an ongoing concern for successive Australian governments over many years. This paper reviews the findings and recommendations of significant reviews of Australia's higher education funding system from the 1988 Dawkins white paper through to the 2014 "Review of the Demand Driven Funding System." It summarises the challenges identified and responses proposed across that period as well as some recent international literature about higher education reform. What is clear from the survey of major reviews from 1988 to the present is the similarity of issues that were of concern to governments of the day. Successive governments have sought to build and fund a higher education system to meet the need for high level skills and innovative research for the Australian economy. The challenge for all governments has been how to enable greater numbers of students to access the benefits higher education offers--in terms of employment, earnings, social and cultural opportunities--while ensuring the system remains fair, high quality and affordable for both individuals and taxpayers. The number of domestic higher education students has more than doubled since 1989, reaching just over a million in 2014. International students comprised another 350,000 students in 2014. As student numbers have grown, they have come from more diverse social, economic and academic backgrounds. The number of providers and their diversity has also grown, with around 20 new public universities since the late 1980s and the emergence of significant numbers of non-university providers. The proportion of the Australian working age population with a bachelor degree or higher qualification has tripled since 1989 to just over 25 per cent. Direct Australian Government funding for teaching, learning and research has grown both in absolute and real terms, rising from $3.2 billion in 1989 to $15.4 billion in 2014, more than doubling when adjusted for inflation. Australia is not unique in facing this growth and higher education systems around the world are increasingly moving from elite to mass systems, and beyond to universal systems.

This paper examines time series data on Commonwealth Government funding for universities from 1996 to 2010. It draws on annual and triennial higher education funding reports released by DIISRTE's predecessors, research income data, Science, Research and Innovation Budget Tables and annual "Higher Education Finance Statistics." The paper examines recurrent grants, research funding and capital funding over time in both nominal and real terms, and presents figures for aggregate funding and average funding per Commonwealth-supported EFTSL. Over the period covered, there were major changes in university funding. As a result, there is little consistency in funding programs or in reporting and data definitions over the years. Time series constructed for this paper represent the best available estimate of broad funding aggregates according to consistent definitions. Data sources and definitions are appended. (Contains 16 figures and 5 footnotes.)

This paper provides statistics on women and graduate management education for 2012. This paper contains two parts: (1) Women in the Business School Talent Pipeline; and (2) Women in Business. "Women in the Business School Talent Pipeline" discusses: (1) GMAT[R] Examinees; (2) B-School Demand from Younger Women; (3) MBA, Masters & Other Intended Degrees; and (4) Female Quants (Interest in Quantitative and Specialized Degrees). "Women in Business" discusses: (1) Jobs; (2) Value of Graduate Management Education; (3) Industry Preferences; (4) Study-Work-Life Balance; and (5) Geographic Focus and Regional Comments. (Contains 7 resources.)

This publication presents information on tertiary education and training during 2010, including statistics on participation and outcomes. The definition of tertiary education and training adopted for this publication is formal study in vocational education and training (VET) and higher education, including enrolments in Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) certificate I qualifications through to doctorates by research, as well as enrolments in non-AQF courses and single vocational subjects. This paper reports that in 2010: (1) there were 1.8 million vocational education and training (VET) students and 1.2 million higher education students; and (2) there were 1.5 million equivalent full-time students in tertiary education and training. This comprised: (a) 655 800 equivalent full-time students reported in the VET sector; and (b) 861 500 equivalent full-time students reported in the higher education sector. (Contains 19 tables and 20 notes.) [Funding for this paper was provided through the Department of Industry, Innovation, Science, Research and Tertiary Education. For 2009 edition, see ED521475.]

The Australian Education Union (AEU) commissioned the Monash University-ACER Centre for the Economics of Education and Training (CEET) to review funding and staffing for VET (vocational education and training), and especially for TAFE (technical and further education), in the context of the recently set COAG (Council of Australian Governments) targets for educational attainment. The paper is motivated by the apparent increase in VET provision implied by government educational attainment targets in the context of stable or declining funding for VET and the conclusion that funding needs to increase if the targets are to be met. The topics canvassed include: (1) The decline in funding levels for public VET; (2) The government targets for increased levels of educational attainment in the population and the workforce; (3) Increased demand for the different types of educational qualifications; and (4) The implications for future funding for VET. (Contains 11 tables, 1 figure and 20 footnotes.) [This paper was prepared for The Australian Education Union.]

This paper provides Appendix D, Standard Error tables, for the full report, entitled. "Literacy, Numeracy, and Problem Solving in Technology-Rich Environments among U.S. Adults: Results from the Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies 2012. First Look. NCES 2014-008." The full report presents results of the Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC). Results are reported for a representative sample of adults in the United States age 16 to 65 and are compared to an international average of adults in countries/regions that participated in the PIAAC 2012 assessment. The full report presents average score results for three separate scales: literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in technology-rich environments and percentages of adults performing at different proficiency levels for each scale. Literacy and numeracy results are reported at Below Level 1, Level 1, Level 2, Level 3, and Level 4/5; problem solving in technology-rich environments is reported at Below Level 1, Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3. The report includes results for groups of adults as defined by various demographic characteristics (e.g., gender, age, race/ethnicity, and level of educational attainment) and level of skill use in and outside of work. Overall results in literacy and numeracy are compared to results from previous international assessments. (Contains 35 tables.) [To view the full report, "Literacy, Numeracy, and Problem Solving in Technology-Rich Environments among U.S. Adults: Results from the Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies 2012. First Look. NCES 2014-008." see ED544452.]

Go8 universities account for over two-thirds of the research undertaken at Australian universities. Go8 universities attract the highest levels of industry and competitive government grant funding for research. This paper presents an analysis of trends in research performance for Go8 and non-Go8 universities including research income as reported by institutions to the Department of Innovation, Industry, Science, Research and Tertiary Education (DIISRTE) as part of the Higher Education Research Data Collection (HERDC) and the DIISRTE Research Block Grant Allocations as well as ERA outcomes and commercialisation data from the National Survey of Research Commercialisation. This analysis shows clearly that while the absolute amount of higher education research funding has grown significantly, the relative shares of research income (as reported in the Higher Education Research Data Collection) and research block grant funding of the major university groupings in Australia has been largely unchanged over the period 1992 to 2010 and 2002 to 2012 respectively with most redistribution of shares occurring between non-Go8 institutions. The National Survey of Research Commercialisation showed that in 2009 Go8 universities dominated in the number of invention disclosures and active licensing agreements as well as in licensing income and the number of patents issued. Based on the Excellence in Research for Australia (ERA) 2010 outcomes, research of the highest quality (ie research well above world average and rated 5) is predominately undertaken at Go8 universities. Government policy should focus on selectivity and concentration of the higher education research effort with the aim of ensuring that funds flow to the best research wherever it may be and that Australia's research universities can sustain international research excellence. (Contains 18 figures.)

Taking a break between completing high school and entering university is common overseas, and is becoming more popular in Australia. There are many reasons why young people take a gap year. It may be to travel, to take a break, to study, or to work. The authors' definition of a "gapper" is a young person who commenced university one to two years after completing Year 12. While the concept of a gap year is related to the deferral of a university offer, it is different. Some gappers have deferred, others decide to enrol during their gap year, not beforehand. Similarly, some who defer a university offer subsequently do not take up a place and are thus not defined as gappers. This report was prepared for the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations in 2009 prior to the Australian Government's announcement of proposed changes to Youth Allowance as an initiative in the 2009-10 Budget and the subsequent reforms based on recommendations from the "Review of Student Income Support Reforms" (Dow 2011). The research uses data from three cohorts of the Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY) to throw light on the incidence of gap-taking, the characteristics of those taking a gap year, the activities undertaken in the gap years, and subsequent study and employment outcomes. The report also looks at whether there is any evidence that young people were taking a gap year in order to qualify for Youth Allowance payments. This report reveals that: (1) The incidence of gap-taking has increased and it is estimated that around 20% of Australian students who complete high school will take a gap year; (2) Gap-takers tend to be weaker academically, with lower-than-average tertiary entrance rank (TER) scores, lower than average Year 9 mathematics achievement, and less favourable attitudes to school. In addition to academic factors, young people from English speaking backgrounds and from regional locations are more likely to take a gap year. Students who do not receive Youth Allowance payments while at school (and thus who were from higher socioeconomic status families) are also more likely to take a gap year; (3) The most common activities of Australian gap students are work (40%) and study or training (33%), with only 3% reporting travel as their main activity; (4) It appears that relatively few took a gap year principally to qualify for Youth Allowance: four out of 69 who deferred a university place gave "needing to qualify for Youth Allowance" as a reason for their deferral; and (5) The university completion rates of "gappers" are a little lower than "non-gappers". Appended are: (1) Variables and methods; and (2) Supplementary tables. (Contains 25 tables and 15 footnotes.) [For "Who Takes a Gap Year and Why? Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth. Briefing Paper 28," see ED533076.]

In this paper the researchers ask how completing Year 12 and undertaking vocational education and training (VET) and university studies assist young people to make a successful transition from school. As part of their research they analyse whether those who are less academic benefit from completing Year 12 and post-school education and training options to the same extent as the more academically inclined. Unlike other studies addressing the issue of successful youth transition, this research looks at the education path chosen (or not), rather than an individual's return from the completion of a particular path (qualification); not all those who embark on a path complete it. The researchers are interested in finding out how the route an individual chooses affects the later employment, wages, job status, financial wellbeing and happiness of young people. They do this by analysing data from the 1995 cohort of the Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY). The analysis suggests that, on average, completing Year 12 is no longer sufficient; rather, young people today need to have Year 12 plus further study to get them on a path to success. For males an apprenticeship after Year 12 is an attractive route, as is university study; for females the best choice is university, even for those with lower levels of academic orientation. The researchers are not suggesting that everyone should be forced to complete Year 12 and to go on to further study. While the best paths involve Year 12 and certain types of post-school study, it is also the case that paths that include Year 12 do not necessarily lead to superior outcomes, relative to those involving leaving school before Year 12. In addition, Karmel and Liu find that the choice of path is not always of consequence. For males, paths only have salience for satisfaction with life, the occupational status of full-time workers and the pay of full-time workers. For the other variables they investigate--engagement with full-time work or study, full-time employment, financial wellbeing, satisfaction with work--the paths do not really matter. That is, the transition from school to adulthood can work well--in relation to these outcome measures--for young men following any of the paths. For females, educational paths matter for attaining full-time engagement and pay for full-time workers and occupational status for full-time workers, but do not matter for financial wellbeing, satisfaction with life and job status for part-time workers. Finally, the researchers note that the analysis relates to people who did Year 12 in 1998, during a buoyant economic period, which, they point out, is also an important factor in contributing to good transitions for young people. Appended are: (1) Final propensity score models; (2) Full outcome models; and (3) Final outcome models. (Contains 46 tables and 6 footnotes.)

This paper produces two sets of estimates of future student demand for higher education in Australia. The two sets of estimates allow Go8 to consider the capacity of the university sector to accommodate future growth in student numbers (including staff and facilities), and to identify the costs involved, including for the Government which has undertaken to fund student demand at the undergraduate level and postgraduate coursework level for programs leading to a first professional qualification. The first projection method, "Method A," uses Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR) data on university and FEE-HELP approved Higher Education Provider (HEP) enrolments (student numbers) by age and level of study. Method A is a conservative approach in that it counts only university and HEP enrolments, not broader tertiary education participation. The second approach to estimating future student demand, "Method B," uses Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) estimates of participation in education and training through its annual survey of "Education and Work." Method B is more expansionary than Method A in that it captures participants across the range of education and training institutions, public and private, funded and unfunded. It also includes those international students who were resident in Australia for 12 months or more. Attached are: (1) The choice of "Series A"; (2) Estimating Method A: data; (3) Estimating Method B: data sets; (4) Projected enrolment growth by qualification: Access Economics; and (5) Projected increase in 16-19 year olds under ABS "Series A" population growth. (Contains 6 figures, 15 tables, and 13 footnotes.) [This is an updated version of "Go8 Backgrounder 10" previously released in June 2010. A number of amendments have been made due to errors found in the base participation rates used in the modelling for Method B. The key findings have not significantly altered.]

The Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY) program studies the progress of several groups of young Australians as they move from school into post-secondary education and work. This technical paper contains the frequency tables for the LSAY 2003 cohort Wave 7 (2009) data set. [For the related questionnaire, see ED512164.]

This technical paper contains information about the variables in the Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY) Year 95 cohort data set. It groups each variable into data elements that identify common variables within and across waves. Information is provided about each data element, including its purpose, values, base populations and relevant notes. [For the main report, "Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY): 1995 Cohort User Guide. Technical Report 49," see ED536757. For related reports, see "Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY): 1995 Cohort--User Guide. Data Elements A: Demographics. Technical Report 49A" (ED536756); "Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY): 1995 Cohort--User Guide. Data Elements B1: Education. Technical Report 49B1" (ED536761); "Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY): 1995 Cohort--User Guide. Data Elements C: Employment. Technical Report 49C" (ED536762); and "Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY): 1995 Cohort--User Guide. Data Elements D: Social. Technical Report 49D" (ED536760).]

The aim of the Australian University Student Finances Survey 2012 is to provide an evidence-based understanding of the financial circumstances of the student population in Australia (both international and domestic) through the collection of quantitative data on: access to income support and scholarships, income from paid employment and the impact of paid work on study, study and living costs and student debt. Its audience is policy makers at the national and institutional level, equity practitioners, researchers and those who work with and support university students--as well as students themselves. It is a survey of some long standing, having been conducted about every five years since the mid-1970s. For the 2012 survey, some key changes were made to methodology to reflect changes in the national policy context and in the student cohort since the survey was last conducted in 2006. In particular, international students have been included in the 2012 survey. Postgraduates were included for the first time in 2006. The 2012 survey was also conducted online rather than paper, reflecting more contemporary practice in survey administration. While the changes mean that some time series information is lost, attention was paid to ensure the main points of comparison with previous years? data was maintained. The inclusion of international students now provides a more comprehensive picture of the whole student body. Invitations to complete the survey were sent to students in late 2012. The sample of 85,476 was drawn, stratified according to institution and broad course level based on 2010 national student enrolment figures from the Department of Education, Employment, and Workplace Relations as it then was. All Indigenous students were included in the sample in order to obtain sufficient responses for analysis. Postgraduate students were also deliberately oversampled for the same reason (see also Table 2.5). The survey, sent to a stratified sample of 83,851 at 37 universities, resulted in 11,761 responses--a response rate of 14.0 per cent (compared with 19.8 per cent for the 2006 survey). About half of all institutions returned response rates of 10-17 per cent. Eight institutions had response rates below 8 per cent, and three had responses above 20 per cent. International students, surveyed for the first time in this series, comprised 38.3 per cent of the total response (compared to 26.7 per cent of the national population), and domestic students 61.7 per cent (compared to 73.3 per cent of the national population). Detailed sample characteristics are appended. [This report was commissioned by Universities Australia.]

This paper is the fourth in a series of national statistical reports on young people aged 12-24 years produced by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW). This report provides the latest available information on how Australia's young people are faring according to national indicators of health and wellbeing. Many young Australians are faring well according to the national indicators presented in this report; however, there is considerable scope for further gains, particularly among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people. The good news include: (1) Large declines in death rates (mostly due to declines in injury deaths); (2) Declines in asthma hospitalisations, notifications for hepatitis (A, B and C) and improved survival for cancer, with survival for melanoma very high; (3) Favourable trends in some risk and protective factors, such as declines in smoking and illicit substance use, and most Year 10 and Year 12 students using contraception; (4) The majority of young people rate their health as "good", "very good" or "excellent"; (5) Most young people are achieving national minimum standards for reading, writing and numeracy, are fully engaged in study or work, and have strong support networks; and (6) Most young people are able to get support from outside the household in times of crisis. Things to work on include: (1) Rising rates of diabetes and sexually transmissible infections (largely chlamydia), and high rates of mental disorders and, among males, road transport accident deaths; (2) Too many young people are overweight or obese, not meeting physical activity or fruit and vegetable guidelines, are drinking at risky or high-risk levels for short-term or long-term harm, are victims of alcohol- or drug-related violence, or are homeless; and (3) Although there have been improvements in some of these areas, the rates remain too high. Appended are: (1) Methods; (2) Data Sources; and (3) Abbreviations. (Contains 25 tables and 123 figures.)

This document reviews how performance indicators are currently being used in several Commonwealth countries the United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada, and identifies some of the issues associated with performance indicator development and application. It also examines whether there are any agreed upon "key", or common, indicators that can be applied universally. After briefly discussing the background of the study and defining the terminology of, the audiences for, and applications of performance indicators, the paper reviews sources of higher education data published by government, government agencies, or national university organizations, and discusses developments in the application of performance indicators. Case studies from the U.K., Australia, and Canada are used to examine five types of indicators: student indicators, such as population, progression/completion rates, destination and satiation; staff indicators; resource and financial indicators; research indicators; and estate management/physical resources indicators. The characteristics of "good" indicators and various concerns surrounding the use of indicators are also addressed. Findings suggest that performance indicators need to be related to institution objectives, should be used with other measures, and cannot presently be used to compare institutions in different countries. Appendices include lists of sources, publications, and contacts; a comprehensive list of possible indicators, and core indicators recommended by the Council of Ontario Universities. (BF)

This book is the first in a set of three study guides designed to help students of educational administration critically analyze contemporary theory in the field, examine the field from a new viewpoint, and develop their own, more practical knowledge base. The first of this volume's two sections, by W. John Smyth, focuses upon the traditional or positivistic approach to the study of educational administration and guides the student through a reading of "Educational Administration: Theory, Research and Practice," a textbook by W. Hoy and C. Miskel identified as typical of the traditional approach. Particular attention is devoted to the book's emphasis on scientific research and theory as the necessary basis of knowledge, to the exclusion of practice and values. The second section, by Laurie Rattray-Wood and June Parrott, argues that the disintegrating consensus of traditional views about the theory of educational administration is leading to the adoption of a revised approach in which the real substance of educational administration includes determination of values, evaluation of ideas, and negotiation of ideas through discourse. Crisis theory is discussed, including its application to the social context of education. The impact of technology, the mass media, and new concepts of work are also reviewed, and future issues and problems are anticipated. Articles from the literature are reproduced for consideration, readings and activities are recommended, and over 75 relevant references are cited. (PGD)