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Quantum mechanics has provided the theoretical foundations which have allowed for the design and development of new technologies that have revolutionised the modern world. By further developing our understanding of condensed matter and solid state systems, we have been able to create novel quantum technologies that directly exploit the archetypal properties of quantum physics, associated with superpositions of states, tunnelling and entanglement. However, due to this reliance on key quantum aspects, such systems are vulnerable to decoherence, a loss of information to the environment, limiting their utility. This has led to the rapid increase in interest in the field of open quantum systems. Studying open quantum systems enriches our understanding of the decoherence processes that impede current quantum technologies. Furthermore, non-Markovian effects allow for a bi-directional flow of information to and from the environment and may give rise to new avenues to control the quantum dynamics of the systems of interest. For example, these effects can lead to extensions of coherence lifetimes and understanding them is integral to developing new quantum technologies. This thesis explores the influence of non-Markovian effects associated with structured environments on the dynamics of embedded quantum systems. We unveil a series of remarkable traits enabled by the non-Markovian evolution, from pairwise entanglement generation between atomic systems, superradiant decay, and the extension of the coherence lifetimes in green fluorescent proteins to demonstrating the ability of artificial neural networks and quantum physical reservoir computers for solving both classical and quantum problems. We begin with exploring the dynamics of atomic ensembles in structured photonic reservoirs associated with photonic band-gap materials and photonic cavity systems. We demonstrate that by carefully structuring the electromagnetic environment, we can achieve a high degree of control over the evolution of the quantum system of interest. The new effects unveiled by our study include super-radiance, enhancements of energy transfer and reduction of decoherence, which pave the way for enhancing our understanding of the dynamics of open quantum systems and for the development of future quantum technologies. Subsequently, we develop novel machine-learning approaches capable of efficiently determining the dynamics of open quantum systems and allowing for the full exploration of the parameter hyperspace, inaccessible with conventional methods. Our formalism employs recurrent neural networks able to maintain long-range temporal correlations, and hence ideally suited for modelling non-Markovian dynamics. The formalism is validated for a strongly non-Markovian system associated with a divergent density of states found in photonic band gap materials, a system that is numerically prohibitive to solve by conventional approaches. However, we show that the complex quantum dynamics can be inexpensively determined by deploying recurring neural network architectures. By exploiting the relationship between the architecture of recurrent neural networks and the non-Markovian dynamics of open quantum systems, we then address the inverse task of utilising these quantum systems to instantiate a recurrent neural network by employing the theory of physical reservoir computation. The proposed quantum physical reservoir computer is shown to be capable of solving both classical image recognition tasks and to unveil the dynamics of open quantum systems. Remarkably, it outperformed an identical neural network without the reservoir computing layer. Next, we explore the dynamical decoherence and memory effects in green fluorescent proteins enabled by their interaction with a frequency-depended dielectric reservoir. Working within the spin-boson model and the Hierarchical Equations of Motion formalism, we demonstrate that the effects of dielectric relaxation in the finite-temperature dielectric environment induce a highly nonMarkovian behaviour. The resulting dynamical features can extend the coherence lifetime of the system and generate transient reductions in entropy, a striking feature of the non-Markovian nature of the system-environment interaction. Finally, we derive a novel master equation and employ it to explore the physics of quantum permanent dipoles. We utilise here the polaron transformation which allows for non-perturbative insights into the nature of these systems. We find that permanent dipoles introduce exciton pumping, multiple photon processes, photon sidebands, and substantial modifications to single-photon transition dipole processes. We identify experimentally accessible regimes where the new effects predicted, including energy level driving and photonic sidebands, can be explored.

This thesis explores the evolution of browser and web-based threats, focusing on the emerging CryptoJacking threat and the well-established Exploit Kit (EK) industry. Two ground-truth datasets are compiled for the experiments. The first is a set of 887 CryptoJacking samples comprising 11 miner families, extracted from the Alexa top 1m websites using a lightweight, static crawler and subject to manual analysis. The second is a set of 1279 EK samples compiled from network traffic samples obtained from reputable sources, representing various public and private networks, and encompassing the entire history of EK families. Subsequently, knowledge gained from a large-scale analysis of EK samples is used to develop REdiREKT, a system that utilises the open-source Zeek Intrusion Detection System (IDS) to map HTTP redirection chains and extract distinguishing features for machine learning (ML). By processing a unique combination of 9 redirection techniques, REdiREKT correctly extracted 96.52% of malicious domains from 1279 EK samples, spanning 28 families and 8 campaigns, and only failed to extract 0.7% of malicious chains. REdiREKT extracted 12,783 domains from 5910 redirection chains when applied to the benign dataset. A range of 48 HTTP, URL, redirect, and content-based features are subsequently extracted for each node (domain) in each redirection chain and stored appropriately to ensure the intrinsic, sequential structure is maintained. The malicious and benign features are assessed to identify common trends, as is the evolution of EK families. Finally, the first known application of a Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) network to detect EK traffic is presented. Samples are processed as sequences, where each timestep represents a redirect and contains a unique combination of 48 features. Hyper-parameters are tuned via 5-fold cross-validation (CV), with the optimal configuration achieving an F1 score of 0.9878 against the unseen test set. Furthermore, isolated feature categories are contrasted to assess their importance.

Current rehabilitation practice in joint replacement surgery for the treatment of end-stage hip osteoarthritis may be ineffective at producing a level of neuromuscular activation required to induce a muscle strength adaption before and after surgery and therefore innovations are required. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) is the elicitation of muscle contraction using electric impulses that can restore and increase skeletal muscle mass when voluntary exercise is limited due to pain during joint loading. The scoping review conducted in this integrated thesis identified i) a paucity of research exploring NMES interventions in individuals with hip osteoarthritis and ii) emerging evidence in related patient populations to support NMES for improving muscle strength and function. These findings shaped the design of a case-control study that compared lower limb strength in individuals with hip osteoarthritis to their healthy counterparts. When compared to a control group, weakness was observed in the maximal strength of the knee extensors (-22%), knee flexors (-34%) and hip abductors (-46%), but knee extensor endurance was the most considerably impaired measure in the affected (-70%) and contralateral limb (-62%) of those with hip osteoarthritis. An acceptability study followed and found that NMES of the knee extensors was tolerable and effective at producing an involuntary muscle contraction. However, it was difficult to stimulate the hip abductor muscles at an intensity acceptable to the participant due to pain and discomfort. A systematic review was later conducted to evaluate adherence levels to NMES interventions in orthopaedic populations and identify strategies to increase compliance. These strategies were combined with findings from the early experimental work to underpin a feasibility study that evaluated a six-week, home-based NMES intervention applied to improve knee extensor endurance in older adults. The intervention was successful at improving bilateral knee extensor endurance, maximal strength, mobility, and muscle size, and found high adherence to the intervention with favourable feedback from the NMES users. This study suggests that NMES of the knee extensors is a feasible and acceptable treatment modality for people with hip osteoarthritis that may lead to improvements in muscle endurance and mobility. Due to the non-weight bearing nature of NMES, this intervention could be applied before or after joint replacement surgery, and therefore these findings are important to inform current rehabilitation practice in hip osteoarthritis. Future research should involve assessing the intervention described here in a clinical setting, with a longitudinal design, to establish the long-term benefits of NMES on patient mobility.

This thesis is split into three sections comprising a systematic review and thematic synthesis of literature, an empirical study, and a critical appraisal of the thesis overall. The systematic review involved a thematic synthesis of 20 studies investigating experiences of perinatal loss, with the research question focusing the analysis on fathers' experiences of support following miscarriage, stillbirth, and infant death. The review yielded three themes of this experience: (1) Gendered expectations and experiences of loss, (2) 'if I talk about it, it upsets her even more': conflict between supporting and needing support, and (3) Male experiences of support and service provision. The findings from the review are presented as a conceptualisation of the experience, highlighting the cyclical nature of barriers to support for fathers. The empirical study aimed to investigate fathers' relational experiences of stillbirth through a lens of continuing bonds and the use of objects. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis was conducted on data from semi-structured interviews with 6 fathers who had experienced stillbirth from 20 weeks of gestation onwards. Analysis revealed five themes: (1) 'his baby didn't die the mum's baby died': loss and continued bonds in a mother-mediated dynamic, (2) 'its connected to your baby but it's not connected to you and your baby together': objects as manifestations of relational and meaningful memories, (3) 'their death does not erase their existence': exerting existence and continued connection to others, (4) 'to replace the fact that she isn't physically here': a continued bond through physical presence, (5) 'over time the relationship shifts too': evolving expressions of love and fatherhood. The findings of both papers along with their strengths, limitations and pertinent clinical implications are presented in the critical appraisal along with the authors reflections on the completion of this thesis.

Introduction: High quality data on service performance is essential in healthcare. There is however a paucity of publicly reported data in community/primary care musculoskeletal (MSK) services. There is also a lack of guidance on which metrics services should be collecting and reporting, and how to adjust data to make fair comparisons across services. This thesis aims to address these gaps, and to develop benchmarking capabilities in this area. Method: a) a systematic review to identify existing MSK case-mix adjustment models; b) an umbrella review of predictors of MSK functional outcome; c) a systematic review identifying key MSK cost drivers; d) an online survey to develop consensus around a core MSK dataset; e) a secondary analysis of data to test identified case-mix models; f) development of benchmarking recommendations. Results: Two existing case-mix models were identified from the UK and US. Predictors of MSK function were identified; baseline function, baseline pain severity, mental wellbeing, comorbidities, age and body mass index. Key community/primary care cost drivers were identified; visits to GP, Physiotherapy, and Medical Specialists. Consensus on a MSK core dataset was captured from 166 healthcare professionals and 25 patients across the UK. Secondary analysis of a primary care cohort testing modified versions of the two existing case-mix models showed the US model gave slightly higher predictive power than the UK model (44% and 41% respectively). Finally, the thesis findings were triangulated to develop data collection recommendations for future MSK service benchmarking. Conclusions: This thesis has generated a body of evidence to inform community/primary care MSK service benchmarking and provides recommendations for future routine data collection of MSK metrics, including; complexity factors for case-mix adjustment, demographics, clinical factors, PROMs, PREMs, and optional cost indicators. The next steps involve the provision of support and guidance for services to successfully implement these recommendations into practice.

A cultural history of English museums between the founding of the Ashmolean (1683) and that of the British Museum (1753), a period when collections first started to describe themselves explicitly as 'public'. My primary materials are catalogues, regulations, benefactors' registers, statutory documents, collectors' wills and other textual representations of collections - these form a paratextual scaffolding which defines emerging institutions and mediates the collective identities of their objects. My project is interested in how monumental and public identities are superimposed on the objects in collections, how these function as qualities of the meanings of objects, in relation to their physical qualities. It explores five collections and their different relationships to publicness: the Cotton Library, the Ashmolean Museum, the Royal Society's repository, the Woodwardian Museum, and Hans Sloane's collection. Comparing these I ask why the public museum emerges in England as a category at this time, how uniform is its conceptualisation, and what claims we can make about the relationships between cultures of legacy making and knowledge making. My research centres on questions about rhetorical permanence and material impermanence, the durability of object, individual and social identities, and about ownership, legacy and patrimony.

Ecosystems are subjected to a wide range of stressors, many of which are anthropogenic in origin. However, far from being impacted by isolated threats, these ecosystems are affected by multiple co-occurring stressors. Currently, there is little understanding of how, or whether, these stressors interact to affect individuals, populations, or communities. Indeed, studies vary in whether they find co-occurring stressors to interact in an additive, antagonistic, or synergistic manner. However, attempts to determine general ecological covariables which may explain these disparate findings have so far failed to do so. Here, I use meta-analytical and theoretical approaches to better understand how stressors can be expected to interact, with a particular emphasis on freshwater ecosystems. Firstly, I simulate food chains which are subjected to co-occurring stressors and compare these results to the findings of the largest multiple stressor meta-analysis, here focusing on freshwater densities. Both approaches illustrate that null (i.e., additive) classifications dominate for individual interactions; although, overall stressors interact to affect density in an antagonistic manner. Secondly, I analyse the statistical tools frequently used to classify multiple stressor interactions. I illustrate that many results which are ascribed ecological importance instead arise due to statistical artefacts of these tools. In turn, I highlight that many experimental designs, commonplace to multiple stressor ecology, lack the statistical power necessary to detect the interactions of co-occurring stressors. Thirdly, I collate and analyse the datasets of seven aquatic multiple stressor meta-analyses under a single consistent framework. I illustrate that the current absence of generalities from multiple stressor meta-analyses primarily arises due to methodological, not ecological, variation. In turn, removing methodological differences results in generalities becoming apparent. Finally, I collate the findings of the above chapters and outline the potential implications for multiple stressor ecology. In doing so, I explore current challenges facing the field alongside future directions.

The focus of this thesis is on the study of modulation of symmetric Hamiltonian ODEs and PDEs. We consider equations which can be written as a symmetric Hamiltonian gradient system, derived from a Lagrangian. The system has conservation laws associated and some of these conserved quantities will play a role in the theory developed. The symmetry of the system defines a particular type of solution called relative equilibria. Modulation of these solutions and back substitution into the governing equations leads to universal form equations, such as the KdV equation, for the modulated wave number. The modulation of the relative equilibria is reliant on a property of the relative equilibria holding. Namely that they are degenerate. This degeneracy is related to conserved quantities of the overall Hamiltonian system. When the relative equilibria are degenerate we can derive the normal form through modulation in the usual way. In the case of non-degenerate relative equilibria we use Whitham modulation to derive characteristics. We can then re-modulate with our space variable changed to be in a frame travelling at the speed of one of these characteristics. Thus working around the fact that our relative equilibria are non-degenerate. We can apply this theory of re-modulation to pattern formation. If our base state to be modulated is a basic roll pattern, then we will derive KdV through the re-modulation in a frame of reference at a new angle. Thus producing modulated patterns at a second angle. As the modulation equation is the KdV equation which is well known to have soliton solutions, a third angle at which solitons form can also be considered. The relative equilibria solutions we are considering are an overall class of solutions. A particular type of relative equilibria which are of interest, especially in the ODE case within this thesis, are relative periodic orbits. These are simply periodic orbits when considered from the frame of reference relative to the group. So we have a periodic orbit in a base space before the group action is considered. This implies a form of lifting action, called a connection, from the periodic orbit to the full system in the group frame. Associated with this connection is a change in angle called holonomy which we also investigate to understand the geometry of relative periodic orbits further.

This study explores the mediating affect of moral emotions on the relationship of implicit moral identity and moral intuition amongst fundraisers. The existing literature highlights the importance of ethical fundraising, as evidenced by criticism in the media (Hill, 2019). In many cases, fundraisers must make moral decisions under intense time pressure. These situations require quick, on-the-spot decisions, which often comes from instinct. The Moral Foundations Theory explains that moral intuition works automatically through innate processes during such situations (Graham et al., 2013; Haidt & Joseph, 2007). It also suggests that moral emotions influence intuitions. Additionally, how much an individual identifies as moral will influence their moral actions (Aquino & Reed, 2002). Within the moral psychology literature there are very few published studies that test the propositions of the Moral Foundations Theory or incorporate moral identity to explain intuition. This study integrated multiple concepts within moral psychology specifically in the context of fundraising. The research comprises two phases, which are exploratory semi-structured interviews and a large-scale questionnaire. The key finding is that neither implicit moral identity nor moral emotions effected moral intuition. Therefore the assumptions made by the Moral Foundations Theory may not necessarily be true across a broad range of circumstances. Additionally, other constructs might influence automatic decision-making amongst fundraisers. The study presents opportunities for further research in these areas.

Behaviour changes around domestic fuel use are essential to meet government emissions targets: unlikely without widespread transformation in individuals thinking about heat and mobility. Government policy options are examined, concluding that social change could be underpinned by a Personal Carbon Account to collate individual's fuel use from all sources. A version was investigated and rejected by the UK Government in 2006-08 on the basis of cost and social unacceptability, with additional concern about distributional impacts. In the PhD this scheme is initially reformulated to avoid some of its distributional issues. Later, this original scheme is reformulated again to eliminate the least popular elements, being the carbon trading market with variable price carbon allowances dependent on supply and demand, and the overall economy-wide cap on carbon allowances. These are replaced with low-priced, fixed-price allowances which are bought and sold as an administrative rather than a trading function. The re-pricing accords with behaviour change theory. The revised scheme was tested in focus groups in 2018. Detailed examination of the emissions of lower income households shows that occupant behaviour is crucial and the most important factor relating emitting more than allocated allowances, albeit tantalisingly intangible. Under-occupation of dwellings (having spare bedrooms) is the single largest tangible indicator. Both are true for households in poverty and throughout the income scale and both involve some degree of occupant volition or choice: if 'choice' contributes to over-emissions it perhaps lessens political obstacles to the scheme's introduction. The cost/benefit analysis was updated for better communications technology (broadband, smartphones) and to include fuel savings, whose omission in the 2008 analysis was, in the author's opinion, a fundamental error. It shows that achievable fuel savings - around 0.8% -enable 'break even', removing 'cost' as a barrier to implementation. The thesis concludes that the revised Personal Carbon Accounts concept is practical, financially justifiable and if framed appropriately, socially acceptable.

It has been shown that the motivation of students' is related to academic achievement. However, while research on the socio-cognitive factors that contribute to students' motivation is increasing, limited attention has been placed on the impact of their real social networks and peer interactions. Therefore, this thesis investigated the spread of motivation between friends i.e. motivation contagion, within a real school environment. To identify the impact of friendships on levels of academic motivation, a longitudinal research study was performed, measuring individual levels of motivation, and social network connections. Additionally, an fMRI study was carried out to establish if observed behavioural similarity could also be identified in brain activation. In Chapters 2 and 3, I examined similarity of motivation between friends using cross-sectional data. Additionally, students network position was also examined, to establish whether being better socially connected is related to levels of individual motivation. In Chapter 4, longitudinal models were constructed in order to break down similarity into its component parts; selection and influence. Chapter 5 includes the fMRI study detailed above, taking measures of brain activity in response to reward and correlating them with the same responses of those with whom they had social connections. Across chapters, the results were varied and in all cases the hypotheses were partially supported. Similarity between friends was observed in some measures of motivation, but not in others. In terms of motivation contagion, results indicated that selection effects were more pervasive than influence effects, suggesting that friendships are more often formed on the basis of similarity, rather than becoming similar over time. Finally, friendship pairs showed similarity in striatal activation in the brain in response to the cue phase of a rewarding task, but the results varied across two samples. The findings are considered from various perspectives including developmental and methodological considerations. Further, application to educational practice is also discussed. Overall, this thesis provides an original contribution by combining psychology, education and neuroscience to provide new insights into the dynamic nature of friendships in the context of school life.

Cub Sushi Multiple Domains 1 (CSMD1) is a novel tumour suppressor gene, which encodes a 388KDa protein with a putative tyrosine phosphorylation site. CSMD1 has been shown to be deleted in various cancers including breast cancer, with CSMD1 deletions generating more mesenchymal phenotypes in cells. Due to these facts it is therefore vital to understand the mechanisms behind CSMD1 action. To analyse this two unique studies were undertaken; one in vivo examining the development of the mouse mammary gland and one in vitro exploring the effect of CSMD1 knockdown on cancer cell development in U2-OS and T47D cells. The in vivo study explored the effect Csmd1 knockout has during pubertal development in the mammary gland. The analysis revealed a role for CSMD1 in the early stages of pubertal development. The Csmd1 knockout mice exhibited larger mammary gland growth, increased ductal area and terminal end bud number by 6 weeks of age. These mice also showed varied protein expression patterns compared to the wild type mice, with alterations in proteins such as Fak, Stat1, PR and Akt. The in vitro study identified a highly unique role for CSMD1 in U2-OS cells and a role in T47D cells. The T47D with CSMD1 knockdown appeared to promote a more mesenchymal phenotype, whereas the U2-OS cells with CSMD1 knockdown expressed a more epithelial phenotype. This analysis also highlighted roles for CSMD1 in the regulation of proteins such as STAT1 and FAK. When combining the 2 data sets there are strong connections between CSMD1 and EMT regulation, which would explain the rapid growth observed in the mice and the changes overserved in the cell lines. From the protein analysis strong links between CSMD1 and, FAK and STAT1 expression have been identified, leading to potential roles for CSMD1 in cell adhesion and in immune evasion respectively.

In both thrombosis and haemostasis, two distinct populations of activated platelets form, pro-aggregatory and pro-coagulant platelets. Pro-aggregatory platelets have active integrins and aggregate together via fibrinogen to form the haemostatic plug which prevents bleeding. Pro-coagulant platelets expose phosphatidylserine (PS) which acts as a surface for binding of the tenase (FIXa/VIIIa) and prothrombinase (FXa/Va) complexes that generate a burst of thrombin production responsible for occlusive clot formation. All current anti-platelet drugs are associated with bleeding side effects since they inhibit pro-aggregatory platelet activity. No drug exists which selectively targets the pro-coagulant platelet population, though this could be an alternative anti-thrombotic approach associated with fewer bleeding side effects if pro-aggregatory activity remains. In order to test such an approach, a selective inhibitor of pro-coagulant platelet activity must be developed. Critical to platelet PS exposure is activity of the main platelet scramblase, TMEM16F. This thesis aimed to develop inhibitors of TMEM16F and platelet scramblase activity. R5421 was the only previously described inhibitor of platelet scramblase activity. R5421, however, is shown to be a non-selective inhibitor of platelet scramblase activity, also affecting platelet pro-aggregatory activity by inhibiting αIIbβ3 integrin activation, α-granule release and cytosolic Ca2+ signalling in response to a range of agonists. Ligand-based in silico methods were applied to identify new inhibitors of platelet scramblase activity. The pesticide thiodicarb was identified as a novel inhibitor of platelet scramblase activity but also acts non-selectively. Since R5421 has wide ranging off-target effects and attempts to improve its selectivity were unsuccessful, other lead compounds were pursued. The polyphenolic compounds tannic acid and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG') inhibit TMEM16F activity when over-expressed in cell lines. Both tannic acid and EGCG' are shown to inhibit platelet scramblase activity. An empirical screen of polyphenolic compounds defined an emerging pharmacophore for inhibition of platelet scramblase activity. All catechin gallate compounds inhibited platelet scramblase activity non-selectively. Structure-based in silico methods were applied to identify new inhibitors of platelet scramblase activity, first using the fungal nhTMEM16 structure and later the mTMEM16F structure. These screens identified novel inhibitors of platelet scramblase activity which do not affect platelet αIIbβ3 integrin activation, α-granule release or cytosolic Ca2+ signalling. Further work is required to confirm whether these compounds act directly on TMEM16F or inhibit platelet scramblase activity through a different mechanism.

The Rule of Law is one of the most important, and most contested, political concepts. The ideas of thinkers-who are frequently taken to be responsible for canonical statements relating to the Rule of Law-are frequently used to illustrate the existence of similarities and differences that both identify what the Rule of Law is and delineate the conceptual boundaries of the concept. In citing these thinkers, the underlying assumption is that the Rule of Law can be seen as a single, diachronically conceivable, concept that has evolved over time. I question both of these practices. Considering Rule of Law conceptions in a superficial sense-by considering only thinkers' accounts in the absence of their authoring context-fails to appreciate nuances and inflections that can fundamentally alter perceived similarities or differences; where various canonical accounts can no longer be seen as reflecting the same ideas, the assumption of a single, evolving, idea of the concept of the Rule of Law as drawn in contemporary conceptual discourse cannot be sustained. I conduct a contextualist examination of two accounts frequently associated with the idea of the Rule of Law: Hobbes's Leviathan and Locke's Two Treatises of Government. To place these in context, I adopt a problem / solution approach. I consider their texts as reflecting solutions to problems that existed in their societies at the time they were writing. To expose the associated problems, I consider pamphlets that were popular at that time. By clearly identifying and associating the Rule of Law solutions with the relevant societal problems, a more nuanced appreciation of the accounts is achieved. By identifying inflections in Rule of Law solutions, it becomes possible to disambiguate between superficially similar ideas. By disambiguating in this way-and by illustrating superficially similar accounts are fundamentally different in their nature-I argue there is no necessary conceptual connection between the Rule of Law accounts provided by Hobbes and Locke. I also argue that this difference is sufficient to show that, at least between these two 'canonical' accounts, the assumption that the Rule of Law has evolved cannot hold; change across Hobbes's and Locke's conceptions of the Rule of Law has occurred not by evolution, but by revolution.

Evidence shows that Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) can manifest in parents following a child's medical trauma (e.g. cancer diagnosis or surgical procedure). To understand the prevalence rates and potential risk factors for parents developing PTSD a meta-analysis was undertaken. Around 30% of parents developed PTSD following paediatric medical trauma. These rates were explored with moderator analysis based on PTSD assessment type, parental gender and medical trauma. Risk factors, large in effect, were found for parental comorbid psychological responses and functioning. Results are discussed within the context of high heterogeneity. Exposure to trauma in childhood is common, with relatively high PTSD prevalence rates among children and adolescents. Children rely on adults to recognise PTSD symptoms and trauma events in order to facilitate help-seeking behaviours. Knowledge of PTSD is therefore important for key adults such as parents and teachers. Research was undertaken using an online questionnaire to identify what parents and teachers know about PTSD in children across three domains: trauma events, symptoms and treatments. Attitudes towards PTSD screening in schools were also explored. Generally, parents and teachers were able to accurately identify traumatic events and PTSD symptoms, although their understanding was broad, with many non-events and symptoms not associated with PTSD diagnostic criteria being selected. Many interventions not recommended for children were selected as effective treatments. The majority of participants supported PTSD screening. It is important that both parents and teachers can accurately recognise PTSD in children and respond accordingly. Clinical implications from both studies are discussed.

Stem cell technology is an invaluable tool in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, with induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) providing the means to design: autologous cell therapies, drug screening platforms and disease/ developmental models. However, the expansion of hiPSCs in vitro typically relies on either the presence of a layer of supportive feeder cells, or the use of ill-defined matrices. Moreover, following differentiation, iPSC-derivatives often lack the same phenotypic traits as their native counterparts. As such, the field of tissue engineering moves toward recapitulating the cell niche in vitro, through the design of biomaterials for 3D cell culture. With this in mind, the designs of new biomaterials are emerging all the time. Of particular focus are 'hydrogels'; a water-swollen network of polymeric fibres which entangle and/ or aggregate to form a self-supporting construct. These fibres can be made of natural and/ or synthetic polymers. Of great interest are peptide hydrogels. Peptide sequences can be designed to self-assemble into an array of larger macromolecular structures. One family of self-assembling peptide hydrogels (SAPHs) are based on an alternating sequence of hydrophilic/ hydrophobic amino acid residues which self-assemble to form beta-sheet nanofibres. Many variations of these SAPHs currently exist within the literature, e.g. EAK, RADA and KFE, and have already shown great promise in supporting the culture of many different cell lineages; a promising substrate for stem cell culture and tissue engineering applications. Importantly, when considering any biomaterial for 3D cell culture, it is vital to determine whether the abundance of material interferes with the method of analysis, either through interactions with the substrate of interest, or a component(s) of the technique. The work presented here is the first to outline the development of protocols for the following applications: 1) the extraction of RNA from cells encapsulated in SAPHs for downstream quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR); and 2) the solubilisation of SAPHs and cell proteins for downstream western blot analysis. For RNA extraction, RNA was isolated from four peptide formulations - which vary in net charge - using either: 1) precipitation-based extraction, or 2) solid-state RNA binding to a silica membrane. The latter was more effective at removing contaminants but both methods resulted in a low yield - demonstrating a clear interference from the presence of SAP. However, enzymatic degradation of the hydrogel construct prior to RNA isolation significantly increased the amount of RNA recovered. On the other hand, for western blot analysis, the focus was on achieving complete solubilisation of both the self-assembling peptide (SAP) monomer and cell proteins following disruption of the hydrogel construct and the lysis of encapsulated cells. The use of urea - unlike a detergent-based buffer (Radioimmunoprecipitation assay buffer, aka RIPA) - in combination with multiple cycles of ultrasonication, was able to completely solubilise the SAP; thereby enabling downstream western blot analysis of cell proteins which are otherwise lost to SAP aggregation. The presence of SAP did not interfere with the standard immunoblotting technique. Together, these methods enable accurate determination of changes in gene/ protein expression of cells encapsulated in SAPH to better understand how cell-matrix interactions influence cell behaviour. The modified protocols were then used to determine the suitability of SAPHs for 3D stem cell expansion and iPSC-to-cardiomyocyte differentiation. The cells expressed pluripotency markers following encapsulation and short-term 3D culture. For cardiomyocyte differentiation, the protocol requires recreating the biphasic Wnt signalling which drives cardiomyogensis in vivo. In this study, this was achieved through the addition of a Wnt activator (Chir99021) and subsequent addition of a Wnt inhibitor (Wnt-C59). Encapsulated cells differentiated toward the mesoderm in response to increasing treatment with Chir99021, demonstrating that 3D differentiation required re-evaluation of exogenous factors. However, following mesodermal commitment, the encapsulated cells failed to commit down the cardiac lineage, despite increasing the concentration of Wnt inhibitor (Wnt-C59). It was postulated that the failed differentiation relates to sequestration of the Wnt activator (Chir99021) within the hydrogel. This work highlights the potential of SAPH as 3D matrices for stem cell based-applications and the current challenges with differentiating cells in 3D.

The current understanding of the Triassic successions of the Central North Sea (CNS) has been limited by a lack of knowledge regarding stratigraphy at a basinal, sub-basinal and field scale. These continental successions, comprising the Early Triassic Smith Bank and Mid-Late Triassic Skagerrak formations, represents alternations of sandstone and mudstone dominated packages/members. This alternation is thought to be climatically driven. Previous palynological analysis of Triassic sediments within the CNS however, has been limited by poor recovery due to a combination of the use of PDC drill bits and oil based muds, poor palynomorph preservation, and the heavily oxidised nature of Triassic sediments. Through the use of a refined palynology processing method it has been possible to obtain an updated palynomorph data set from which a robust biostratigraphic zonation scheme consisting of 8 bio-zones has been established. This has provided a chronostratigraphic framework that can be used to correlate across the CNS providing both clarity and age constraint on previously disputed stratigraphic units. The use of multivariate statistical techniques, such as de-trended correspondence analysis (DCA), have also been applied to this data set to quantitatively reconstruct paleo-environments. Using DCA it has been possible to construct a relative wet/dry trend for the CNS basin during the Triassic. The resultant trend reveal that the relationship between climate and individual members is not as simple as first indicated by existing models, and mudstone/sandstone cyclicity is not controlled solely by climate as previously thought but is more likely influenced by several factors working independently of each other. The climate trends shown here also suggest that the Carnian pluvial episode (CPE) documented from the South Permian basin and Tethys is not expressed in the CNS. Though the use of a Portable X-ray fluorescence (PXRF) scanner, the elemental signal through the Triassic succession of three wells from the UKCS CNS is also documented.

Much of the research that deals with university choosing focuses on high attaining state school students accessing ‘elite’ universities. In contrast, this thesis is concerned with the experiences of the discrete – and hitherto under-researched - group of socially and academically diverse, moderately attaining students who form the majority of many school sixth forms. The policy background to the study is a shift in UK higher education policy discourse from the inclusivity of ‘widening participation’ to the exclusivity of ‘fair access’ which reflects a more pronounced policy focus on high attaining students and their university aspirations. The policy of fair access, including the requirement on schools to submit annual destination data of students accessing ‘top third’ universities, and a competitive sixth form market combine to put enormous pressures on schools. Some appear to have responded to these pressures by differentiating the support provided to students for their Higher Education (HE) or other, post-school choices. An ethnographic study of three different school sixth forms was used to explore the support for post-school choosing offered to a range of academically attaining sixth formers, with a particular focus on moderate attainers. Forty-eight students were tracked through the sixth forms of a multi-ethnic comprehensive, a Church of England academy and an independent selective boys’ school, to their post-school destinations. Structured and semi-structured interviews were conducted with each student over the course of eighteen months in order to gain insights into the support for the HE choice and applications process, and support for non-HE choices, offered in each school. Interviews were also carried out with three heads of sixth form, a head of careers, a careers advisor, sixth form tutors, and an admissions tutor at a Russell Group university. In each school, participant observation was carried out of sixth form assemblies, higher education and/or careers events, form periods and lessons. In addition, informal interviews were conducted with university admissions administrators, student ambassadors, FE college representatives and parents. The Bourdieusian concepts of institutional habitus (Reay, 1998; Reay, David and Ball, 2005) and teacher habitus (Oliver and Kettley, 2010) and social and cultural capital were employed to help illuminate school practices, teachers’ approaches to supporting different groups of students, and students’ experiences of post-school choosing. Support for the HE process in the two state schools was differentiated in a myriad of formal and informal ways that overwhelmingly disadvantaged moderate attainers with their post-school choosing. The influence of a dominant fair access policy, coupled with the marketing potential of students accessing Russell Group universities meant that the schools invested disproportionately in high attainers. I suggest that the system of support for the HE process found in the independent school, which avoided an overreliance on the form tutor, was a fairer way of distributing resources.

Full-waveform inversion (FWI) is a nonlinear optimisation procedure, seeking to match synthetically-generated seismograms with those observed in field data by iteratively updating a model of the subsurface seismic parameters, typically compressional wave (P-wave) velocity. Advances in high-performance computing have made FWI of 3-dimensional models feasible, but the low sensitivity of the objective function to deeper, low-wavenumber components of velocity makes these difficult to recover using FWI relative to more traditional, less automated, techniques. While the use of inadequate physics during the synthetic modelling stage is a contributing factor, I propose that this weakness is substantially one of ill-conditioning, and that efforts to remedy it should focus on the development of both more efficient seismic modelling techniques, and more sophisticated preconditioners for the optimisation iterations. I demonstrate that the problem of poor low-wavenumber velocity recovery can be reproduced in an analogous one-dimensional inversion problem, and that in this case it can be remedied by making full use of the available curvature information, in the form of the Hessian matrix. In two or three dimensions, this curvature information is prohibitively expensive to obtain and store as part of an inversion procedure. I obtain the complete Hessian matrices for a realistically-sized, two-dimensional, towed-streamer inversion problem at several stages during the inversion and link properties of these matrices to the behaviour of the inversion. Based on these observations, I propose a method for approximating the action of the Hessian and suggest it as a path forward for more sophisticated preconditioning of the inversion process.

Current biological sensing methods exploit fluorescent organic dyes and quantum dots as the optical probe. They suffer from several drawbacks including UV-Visible excitation, competitive autofluorescence and biotoxicity. This limits their effectiveness in vivo. As an alternative, lanthanide doped upconverting nanophosphors (UCNP) have emerged as a new class of materials for use in optical sensing; they exhibit high photo and chemical stability and utilise near infrared excitation. Current methods of sensing biologically important substrates using upconverting nanoparticles use Luminescent Resonance Energy Transfer (LRET), which is distance dependent. Enzymes are proteins that catalyse biological reactions and they have unrivalled sensitivity and selectivity for their substrates. However to date UCNP-enzyme based biosensors have received relatively little interest in the literature. Chapter 1 summarises the theory behind UCNPs and their current bioapplications. Chapter 2 describes the synthesis of UCNPs via a one-pot hydro(solvo)thermal method. This method is used to produce a series of UCNPs based on a NaYF4 core doped with either Yb/Er or Yb/Tm with a variety of different capping thiol and maleimide ligands. Surface modification of the industry-donated UCPs (donated by Phosphor Technology Limited) to introduce hydrophilicity and functional groups for conjugation was achieved through silica capping. All of the UCNP syntheses and ligand modifications are reproducible, can be applied to UCNPs of different cores and have been fully characterised by a variety of analytical methods. Chapter 3 proved that LRET could occur from a UCP (donor) to a dye (acceptor) resulting in the ratiometric quenching of the UCP emission bands. Then covalent attachment methodology, in order to covalently attach the dyes to the surface of the UCPs, was developed. Chapter 4 demonstrated the ability of the UCPs to ratiometrically sense six chromophoric biomolecules, with a non-linear relationship between spectral overlap and Stern-Volmer constant observed. Chapter 5 screened all the thiol and maleimide capped UCNPs synthesised in Chapter 2 for their bioconjugation ability using GFP as the proof-of-principle protein and the maleimide capping ligands were found to be the better ligands for biomolecule attachment. In Chapter 6, a robust method for the attachment of enzymes to the surface of Gd2SO4:Yb,Er and Gd2SO4:Yb,Tm phosphors through thiol-maleimide coupling was developed. Six different biomolecules were attached to the UCPs and fully characterised. The activity of the enzymes covalently bound to the UCP surfaces was tested before the ratiometric detection of enzyme turnover, using 980 nm excitation of the UCP was investigated. The PETNR(FMN)475 nanoparticle system was proven to act a ratiometric biosensor for NADPH, sodium dithionite, oxygen and ketoisophorone. This is the first known example of a covalently bound UCP-enzyme system acting as a ratiometric biosensor.

Datasets of individual investor trading records have been an important source of empirical evidence in the field of behavioural finance. This thesis contributes to two topics within this empirical literature using a dataset of trading records from a discount brokerage. The first topic is the disposition effect (DE), the tendency for investors to sell winning positions at a faster rate than losing positions. A version of the aggregate DE score introduced by Odean (1998) is analysed, as a time series and at the level of individual stocks. The influence of each stock on the aggregate DE score is calculated, and the characteristics of high and low influence stocks compared. A formal relationship is derived between this DE score and the hazard ratio estimated in a proportional hazards (PH) model. PH models have been used in the literature to measure the effect of covariates on the DE at the investor level. Past approaches have used a marginal model to address the problem of correlation between positions at the investor-level, which involves computing robust standard errors after estimation of the model. A shared frailty model is tested as a more flexible alternative, where unobserved heterogeneity is modelled through the use of latent variables. It provides a significantly improved fit relative to the corresponding marginal model, and adheres more closely to the PH assumption. The second topic is the preference of investors for lottery stocks. These are stocks that are low in price and high in volatility and skewness, a scheme of stock categorisation suggested by Kumar (2009a). The theme of using more flexible models to accommodate investor-level correlation is continued, with a mixed-effects logistic regression being used to study the factors affecting the decision to purchase a lottery stock. This allows the comparison of both time-varying and static factors.

With an expanding population and uncertain consequences of climate change, the need to both stabilise and increase crop yields is important. The relationship between biomass production and radiation interception suggests one target for improvement. Under optimal growing conditions, biomass production is determined by the amount of light intercepted and the efficiency with which this is converted into dry matter. The amount of light at a given photosynthetic surface is dependent upon solar movement, weather patterns and the structure of the plant, amongst others. Optimising canopy structure provides a method by which we can improve and optimise both radiation interception and also the distribution of light among canopy layers that contribute to net photosynthesis. This requires knowledge of how canopy structure determines light distribution and therefore photosynthetic capacity of a given crop species. The aim of this thesis was to assess the relationships between canopy architecture, the light environment and photosynthesis. This focused on two core areas: the effect of varietal selection and management practices on canopy structure and the light environment and; the effect of variable light on select photosynthetic processes (photoinhibition and acclimation). An image-based reconstruction method based on stereocameras was employed with a forward ray tracing algorithm in order to model canopy structure and light distributions in high-resolution. Empirical models were then applied using parameterisation from manually measured data to predict the effects of variable light on photosynthesis. The plasticity of plants means that the physical structure of the canopy is dependent upon many different factors. Detailed descriptions of canopy architecture are integral to predicting whole canopy photosynthesis due to the spatial and temporal differences in light profiles between canopies. This inherent complexity of the canopy means that previous methods for calculating light interception are often not suitable. 3-dimensional modelling can provide a quick and easy method to retain this complexity by preserving small variations. This provides a means to more accurately quantify light interception and enable the scaling of cellular level processes up to the whole canopy. Results indicate that a canopy with more upright leaves enables greater light penetration to lower canopy layers, and thus higher photosynthetic productivity. This structural characteristic can also limit radiation-induced damage by preventing exposure to high light, particularly around midday. Whilst these features may lead to higher photosynthetic rates per unit leaf area, per unit ground area, photosynthesis is usually determined by total leaf area of the canopies, and within this study, the erect canopies tended to have lower total leaf areas than the more horizontal canopies. The structural arrangement of plant material often led to low levels of light within the lower canopy layers which were punctuated by infrequent, high light events. However, the slow response of photosynthesis to a change in light levels meant that these sun flecks cannot be used by the plant and thus the optimal strategy should be geared towards light harvesting and efficient photosynthesis under low light conditions. The results of this study contribute to our understanding of photosynthetic processes within the whole canopy and provide a foundation for future work in this area.

The interrelationship between forts and their attached vici during the Late Roman Period is still not fully understood, particularly in the North of Britannia. Furthermore, the Late/sub-Roman transitional period remains a nebulous topic of archaeological investigation, obfuscated not only by a dearth of dateable artefacts, but also by a paucity of large-scale research focusing on this time period. The site of Binchester, located in Bishop Auckland, is ideal for providing unique insight into both of these areas. Binchester shows evidence of continuous occupation through the Late Roman Period and into the 6th century, providing insight into the Late/sub-Roman transitional period. Furthermore, the current project features the simultaneous excavation within both fort and vicus, yielding large amounts of cultural material from each location. Among the finds recovered from both areas are robust assemblages of animal bones of Late Roman date, with the likely presence of sub-Roman inclusions. These faunal remains, particularly the cattle bone, representing a majority in both assemblages, provide a unique window into the practices, exchange and interrelatedness of the fort and vicus inhabitants, giving insight into the convergence or divergence of identity between these two areas. Morphological analysis of the species representation and utilisation of cattle resources at the fort and vicus suggests a surprising degree of similarity in practice between the fort and vicus, suggesting a high degree of social cohesion and a shared, if not identical, identity in both areas. Metric analysis of recovered cattle elements, conversely, indicates a distinction in identity between fort and vicus, providing evidence of the preferential provisioning of larger, likely castrated, cattle within the fort. Comparison between sites across a range of site functions, locations and chronological dates revealed a widespread trend of larger cattle within military sites, with civilian or urban sites seeing fewer likely castrates. This cross-site comparison also shows a great deal of morphological and metric similarity between Late and sub-Roman cattle populations, indicating a continuity of practice and maintenance of local control.

Atomic layer deposition (ALD) uses surface reactions of gaseous precursors to grow thin films of materials. Exceptional uniformity and thickness control is possible due to the separation of the different precursors, allowing each to undergo reactions with substrate surface groups until, on chemisorption of a complete monolayer, self-termination occurs. Purging after the precursor release removes by-products and remaining precursor, ensuring that the material growth proceeds layer-by-layer. These and other benefits such as relatively low deposition temperatures, and the ability to coat large areas and complex 3D surfaces, have led to ALD being a key and increasingly popular technique in research and industry. One area of application of ALD is in optoelectronics; this thesis describes the design and construction of an ALD system for research into optoelectronics, including thin film transistors, solar cells and photoelectrodes. A conventional, thermal ALD system was custom-built, and the deposition of Al2O3, ZnO and Al doped ZnO (AZO) using trimethyl aluminium, diethyl zinc and H2O was characterised through techniques including X-ray diffraction, UV-visible spectroscopy, cross-sectional TEM, resistivity and Hall measurements. The growth per cycle and the properties of the materials were consistent with literature values, confirming self-saturating ALD was achieved. The conductivity of ZnO was seen to increase with temperature and doping, and the ZnO (wurtzite crystal structure) out-of-plane preferential orientation became increasingly [100] at lower temperature and with higher Al content. Reducing purge times below 10 s resulted in a slight increase in ZnO film thickness due to a chemical vapour deposition contribution to growth, but the more significant effect was a reduction in mobility and carrier concentration, and a higher hysteresis when the ZnO was employed as a thin film transistor channel layer. The crystal orientation of ALD ZnO deposited at 100 °C was investigated on different substrates such as amorphous quartz, polycrystalline ITO and single crystal sapphire. A method of using multilayers of [100] oriented AZO, ultrathin Al2O3 (< 20 ALD cycles) and ZnO was developed as an alternative way to control the ZnO orientation whilst ensuring compatibility with devices. A dependency on ZnO crystal orientation was seen for CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite degradation rate when CH3NH3PbI3 was deposited on top of an ALD ZnO layer. The stability of CH3NH3PbI3 was studied by temperature controlled XRD and film colour change; Al doping of ZnO reduced degradation rates. High aspect ratio track-etched membranes were coated by ALD to produce nanotubes, and Cu2ZnSnS4 nanoparticle films were coated with Al2O3 layers which increased stability as a photocathode. The ALD system built and the principles explored for tuning material properties presented in this thesis can be used to further optimise optoelectronic devices in the future.

This thesis provides an assessment of language policy (Spolsky, 2004) in Alicante, one of three provinces in the Valencian Community in the south east of Spain. The Valencian Community was founded in 1982 during Spain’s transition to democracy. Its Statute of Autonomy (Corts Valencianes, 1982), which was created in the same year, declares Castilian (the language of the state) and Valencian (a geographic variety of Catalan) as co-official in the autonomous community. Prior to this, Franco’s regime (1939-1975) had prohibited the public use of regional varieties such as Valencian. Yet, whilst the two languages now share equal official status, there is disparity between official language statements and de facto language policy (Shohamy, 2006). This project contributes to the growing research areas of language policy and language revitalisation. The findings of this study are positioned in the context of Catalan-speaking territories, Spain, and the wider European setting. This thesis provides a localised view of language policy in Alicante and uncovers the complexity of the current sociolinguistic setting. In order to present such a nuanced view of local language policy, this project draws upon qualitative and quantitative data collected during the administration of fieldwork questionnaires in 2014 in the towns of Sant Vicent del Raspeig and La Vila Joiosa. Both towns are in the province of Alicante; Sant Vicent del Raspeig is in the comarca (county) of L’Alacantí whilst La Vila Joiosa is in La Marina Baixa. This thesis examines a number of themes that emerged from the data, including the evolution of the composition of linguistic repertoires and the perception and construction of Valencian identities. This project also discusses the closure of the Valencian public broadcaster Ràdio Televisió Valenciana (RTVV) and examines how external factors, in addition to internal components, contribute to language policy. Data revealed that there is not one clearly identifiable language policy in Alicante; rather multiple layers of language practices, language management and language beliefs operate and intersect at various levels to contribute to a complex local language policy. This complexity is due in part to the social, linguistic, cultural and historical change experienced since the transition to democracy. Of particular significance is the increased access to Valencian which has resulted from the introduction of language legislation and the inclusion of Valencian in the education system (Blas Arroyo, 2002). As such, more language users are able to acquire standard Valencian, and its surrounding ideologies (Milroy, 2001; 2007), and also literacy. Consequently, language policy continues to evolve to reflect such changes as more language users are exposed to Valencian. However, data suggest that previous conditions and consolidated ideologies inherited from the past also continue to be influential and contribute to current language policy. This range of language practices, management and beliefs informs a complex and dynamic language policy. This project presents the case of language policy in Alicante and contributes to current research in Hispanic Studies and Sociolinguistics. The findings of this study further our understanding of language policy and its development in response to changing sociolinguistic conditions, such as increased access to minority languages in the present European context as a result of language revitalisation efforts. The findings presented here should encourage further research and debate, not only in the context of Spain, but also in other European contexts where a minority language has undergone language revitalisation, which has resulted in a change to traditional sociolinguistic order.

This thesis (comprised of the literature review and empirical paper) aimed to explore the correlation between physical activity and mood in pregnant women. The literature review of this portfolio presents a narrative review of the research exploring the correlation between physical activity and mood in the general pregnant population. The findings of the review suggest that physical activity improves mood in this population. The empirical paper investigates the correlation between physical activity and mood over the duration of pregnancy. The findings suggest that increased physical activity from before pregnancy to the second trimester improves mood. The Summary of Clinical Experience is an outline of my experiences on 4 different clinical placements. The Table of Assessments outlines the titles of all assessments completed whilst on the clinical training programme.