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Co-pyrolysis is one of the most promising options for using coal and biomass because coal is low in hydrogen and biomass can supplement the hydrogen content to make a more valuable and reactive product gas. The mixture of coal and biomass is prepared, with the mass ratio of biomass varying between 0 and 100%. Due to limitations in experimental methods, the data points measured in these studies are coarse and therefore, insufficient for kinetic energy analysis and model comparison. Therefore, a mathematical model has been proposed to combine a study of the influence of experimental parameters with different materials to understand better the effect of these parameters on pyrolysis with the rigorous control of experimental conditions in terms of precision and repeatability. The advantages of mathematical modelling co-pyrolysis make it possible to design a reaction scheme capable of describing this phenomenon and extracting kinetic parameters, making it possible to compare fuels, which can be used for the simulation of this process in thermal power plants. The experimental analysis of measured co-pyrolysis data was taken from literature work to validate the proposed model. The numerical model results are in good agreement with the experimental data for co-pyrolysis. The most significant degree of synergetic effects on the product yields was observed at 600 °C and a biomass blending ratio of 70 wt%. Furthermore, the improvement of char reactivity also identifies the synergies in co-pyrolysis.

Co-pyrolysis is one of the most promising options for using coal and biomass because coal is low in hydrogen and biomass can supplement the hydrogen content to make a more valuable and reactive product gas. The mixture of coal and biomass is prepared, with the mass ratio of biomass varying between 0 and 100%. Due to limitations in experimental methods, the data points measured in these studies are coarse and therefore, insufficient for kinetic energy analysis and model comparison. Therefore, a mathematical model has been proposed to combine a study of the influence of experimental parameters with different materials to understand better the effect of these parameters on pyrolysis with the rigorous control of experimental conditions in terms of precision and repeatability. The advantages of mathematical modelling co-pyrolysis make it possible to design a reaction scheme capable of describing this phenomenon and extracting kinetic parameters, making it possible to compare fuels, which can be used for the simulation of this process in thermal power plants. The experimental analysis of measured co-pyrolysis data was taken from literature work to validate the proposed model. The numerical model results are in good agreement with the experimental data for co-pyrolysis. The most significant degree of synergetic effects on the product yields was observed at 600 °C and a biomass blending ratio of 70 wt%. Furthermore, the improvement of char reactivity also identifies the synergies in co-pyrolysis.

Co-pyrolysis is one of the most promising options for using coal and biomass because coal is low in hydrogen and biomass can supplement the hydrogen content to make a more valuable and reactive product gas. The mixture of coal and biomass is prepared, with the mass ratio of biomass varying between 0 and 100%. Due to limitations in experimental methods, the data points measured in these studies are coarse and therefore, insufficient for kinetic energy analysis and model comparison. Therefore, a mathematical model has been proposed to combine a study of the influence of experimental parameters with different materials to understand better the effect of these parameters on pyrolysis with the rigorous control of experimental conditions in terms of precision and repeatability. The advantages of mathematical modelling co-pyrolysis make it possible to design a reaction scheme capable of describing this phenomenon and extracting kinetic parameters, making it possible to compare fuels, which can be used for the simulation of this process in thermal power plants. The experimental analysis of measured co-pyrolysis data was taken from literature work to validate the proposed model. The numerical model results are in good agreement with the experimental data for co-pyrolysis. The most significant degree of synergetic effects on the product yields was observed at 600 °C and a biomass blending ratio of 70 wt%. Furthermore, the improvement of char reactivity also identifies the synergies in co-pyrolysis.

Co-pyrolysis is one of the most promising options for using coal and biomass because coal is low in hydrogen and biomass can supplement the hydrogen content to make a more valuable and reactive product gas. The mixture of coal and biomass is prepared, with the mass ratio of biomass varying between 0 and 100%. Due to limitations in experimental methods, the data points measured in these studies are coarse and therefore, insufficient for kinetic energy analysis and model comparison. Therefore, a mathematical model has been proposed to combine a study of the influence of experimental parameters with different materials to understand better the effect of these parameters on pyrolysis with the rigorous control of experimental conditions in terms of precision and repeatability. The advantages of mathematical modelling co-pyrolysis make it possible to design a reaction scheme capable of describing this phenomenon and extracting kinetic parameters, making it possible to compare fuels, which can be used for the simulation of this process in thermal power plants. The experimental analysis of measured co-pyrolysis data was taken from literature work to validate the proposed model. The numerical model results are in good agreement with the experimental data for co-pyrolysis. The most significant degree of synergetic effects on the product yields was observed at 600 °C and a biomass blending ratio of 70 wt%. Furthermore, the improvement of char reactivity also identifies the synergies in co-pyrolysis.

A comprehensive study of the energy yield from slow pyrolysis of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW) and energy recovery from the aqueous liquid product by anaerobic digestion has been carried out. In this paper, the results of the liquid pyrolysis product characterisation are presented, with toxicity and methane potential assessments of the aqueous liquid product. The OFMSW feedstock was obtained from a UK waste treatment plant. Shredded samples dried to different moisture contents (12.7–45.8%) were processed in a 300 g per hour auger screw pyrolysis reactor at temperatures from 450 to 850 °C. Sixteen pyrolysis runs were performed, with process mass balance closures above 90% obtained (wet feed basis). Pyrolysis liquids showed clear phase separation under gravity. With increasing processing temperature, the liquid yield (both organic and aqueous fraction) reduced but the gas yield increased. An investigation into the product energy distribution indicated that processing temperature had a strong effect on the product energy distribution, while the effect of feedstock moisture was relatively small. Batch anaerobic testing of the aqueous fraction showed that toxicity increased with pyrolysis processing temperature and decreased with feedstock moisture content. Statistical analysis confirmed that the pyrolysis processing temperature was the dominant factor affecting the toxicity of the aqueous product. Careful acclimatisation of the microbial consortium to the applied substrate and loading is likely to be necessary for improved digestion of the aqueous fraction.

A comprehensive study of the energy yield from slow pyrolysis of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW) and energy recovery from the aqueous liquid product by anaerobic digestion has been carried out. In this paper, the results of the liquid pyrolysis product characterisation are presented, with toxicity and methane potential assessments of the aqueous liquid product. The OFMSW feedstock was obtained from a UK waste treatment plant. Shredded samples dried to different moisture contents (12.7–45.8%) were processed in a 300 g per hour auger screw pyrolysis reactor at temperatures from 450 to 850 °C. Sixteen pyrolysis runs were performed, with process mass balance closures above 90% obtained (wet feed basis). Pyrolysis liquids showed clear phase separation under gravity. With increasing processing temperature, the liquid yield (both organic and aqueous fraction) reduced but the gas yield increased. An investigation into the product energy distribution indicated that processing temperature had a strong effect on the product energy distribution, while the effect of feedstock moisture was relatively small. Batch anaerobic testing of the aqueous fraction showed that toxicity increased with pyrolysis processing temperature and decreased with feedstock moisture content. Statistical analysis confirmed that the pyrolysis processing temperature was the dominant factor affecting the toxicity of the aqueous product. Careful acclimatisation of the microbial consortium to the applied substrate and loading is likely to be necessary for improved digestion of the aqueous fraction.

A comprehensive study of the energy yield from slow pyrolysis of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW) and energy recovery from the aqueous liquid product by anaerobic digestion has been carried out. In this paper, the results of the liquid pyrolysis product characterisation are presented, with toxicity and methane potential assessments of the aqueous liquid product. The OFMSW feedstock was obtained from a UK waste treatment plant. Shredded samples dried to different moisture contents (12.7–45.8%) were processed in a 300 g per hour auger screw pyrolysis reactor at temperatures from 450 to 850 °C. Sixteen pyrolysis runs were performed, with process mass balance closures above 90% obtained (wet feed basis). Pyrolysis liquids showed clear phase separation under gravity. With increasing processing temperature, the liquid yield (both organic and aqueous fraction) reduced but the gas yield increased. An investigation into the product energy distribution indicated that processing temperature had a strong effect on the product energy distribution, while the effect of feedstock moisture was relatively small. Batch anaerobic testing of the aqueous fraction showed that toxicity increased with pyrolysis processing temperature and decreased with feedstock moisture content. Statistical analysis confirmed that the pyrolysis processing temperature was the dominant factor affecting the toxicity of the aqueous product. Careful acclimatisation of the microbial consortium to the applied substrate and loading is likely to be necessary for improved digestion of the aqueous fraction.

A comprehensive study of the energy yield from slow pyrolysis of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW) and energy recovery from the aqueous liquid product by anaerobic digestion has been carried out. In this paper, the results of the liquid pyrolysis product characterisation are presented, with toxicity and methane potential assessments of the aqueous liquid product. The OFMSW feedstock was obtained from a UK waste treatment plant. Shredded samples dried to different moisture contents (12.7–45.8%) were processed in a 300 g per hour auger screw pyrolysis reactor at temperatures from 450 to 850 °C. Sixteen pyrolysis runs were performed, with process mass balance closures above 90% obtained (wet feed basis). Pyrolysis liquids showed clear phase separation under gravity. With increasing processing temperature, the liquid yield (both organic and aqueous fraction) reduced but the gas yield increased. An investigation into the product energy distribution indicated that processing temperature had a strong effect on the product energy distribution, while the effect of feedstock moisture was relatively small. Batch anaerobic testing of the aqueous fraction showed that toxicity increased with pyrolysis processing temperature and decreased with feedstock moisture content. Statistical analysis confirmed that the pyrolysis processing temperature was the dominant factor affecting the toxicity of the aqueous product. Careful acclimatisation of the microbial consortium to the applied substrate and loading is likely to be necessary for improved digestion of the aqueous fraction.

Bio-oil from the fast pyrolysis of agro-residues still needs to contemplate different production scenarios to look for its feasibility. For this reason, in this work the effect of a range of fast pyrolysis temperature (450, 480, 510 and 550 °C) processing rape straw biomass (with high K content) has been studied in a continuous bubbling fluidised bed reactor. It was found that the catalytic effect of the inorganic content was different at each fast pyrolysis temperature, with the lower temperatures resulting in the highest yield of bio-oil due to minor catalytic effect (up to 41.39 wt%). It was also found that at 480 °C the bio-oil presented the best combination of physico-chemical features such as non-separation phase and the lowest water content; yield (39.65 wt%) and HHV (19.23 MJ/kg), containing a high concentration of phenolic compounds. At the fast pyrolysis temperature of 510 °C and 550 °C, the conjunction effect of temperature and the catalytic effect provoked bio-oil separation into two phases and a higher gas yield than was expected. Then, the higher temperatures are not suitable for bio-oil production. Char is also an interesting co-product for all pyrolysis temperatures.

Bio-oil from the fast pyrolysis of agro-residues still needs to contemplate different production scenarios to look for its feasibility. For this reason, in this work the effect of a range of fast pyrolysis temperature (450, 480, 510 and 550 °C) processing rape straw biomass (with high K content) has been studied in a continuous bubbling fluidised bed reactor. It was found that the catalytic effect of the inorganic content was different at each fast pyrolysis temperature, with the lower temperatures resulting in the highest yield of bio-oil due to minor catalytic effect (up to 41.39 wt%). It was also found that at 480 °C the bio-oil presented the best combination of physico-chemical features such as non-separation phase and the lowest water content; yield (39.65 wt%) and HHV (19.23 MJ/kg), containing a high concentration of phenolic compounds. At the fast pyrolysis temperature of 510 °C and 550 °C, the conjunction effect of temperature and the catalytic effect provoked bio-oil separation into two phases and a higher gas yield than was expected. Then, the higher temperatures are not suitable for bio-oil production. Char is also an interesting co-product for all pyrolysis temperatures.

Combined heat and power from the intermediate pyrolysis of biomass materials offers flexible, on-demand renewable energy with some significant advantages over other renewable routes. To maximise the deployment of this technology an understanding of the dynamics and sensitivities of such a system is required. In the present work the system performance, economics and life-cycle environmental impact is analysed with the aid of the process simulation software Aspen Plus. Under the base conditions for the UK, such schemes are not currently economically competitive with energy and char products produced from conventional means. However, under certain scenarios as modelled using a sensitivity analysis this technology can compete and can therefore potentially contribute to the energy and resource sustainability of the economy, particularly in on-site applications with low-value waste feedstocks. The major areas for potential performance improvement are in reactor cost reductions, the reliable use of waste feedstocks and a high value end use for the char by-product from pyrolysis.

The main driver for the investigation of fast pyrolysis oil marine fuel blends is EU directive 2012/33/EU which aims to cut the sulphur content of marine fuel and thereby reduce air pollution caused by marine vessels. The aim of this study was to investigate the miscibility of three- and four- component blends containing pyrolysis oil, 1-butanol, biodiesel (RME) and/or marine gas oil (MGO). The ideal blend would be a stable homogenous product with a minimum amount of butanol, whilst maximising the amount of pyrolysis oil. A successful blend would have properties suitable for use in marine engines. In order to successfully utilise a marine fuel blend in commercial vessels it should meet minimum specification requirements such as a flash point ≥60°C. Blends of pyrolysis oil, RME, MGO and 1-butanol were evaluated and characterised. The mixed blends were inspected after 48 hours for homogeneity and the results plotted on a tri-plot phase diagram. Homogenous samples were tested for water content, pH, acid number, viscosity and flash point as these indicate a blend's suitability for engine testing. The work forms part of the ReShip Project which is funded by Norwegian industry partners and the Research Council of Norway (The ENERGIX programme).

Combined heat and power from the intermediate pyrolysis of biomass materials offers flexible, on-demand renewable energy with some significant advantages over other renewable routes. To maximise the deployment of this technology an understanding of the dynamics and sensitivities of such a system is required. In the present work the system performance, economics and life-cycle environmental impact is analysed with the aid of the process simulation software Aspen Plus. Under the base conditions for the UK, such schemes are not currently economically competitive with energy and char products produced from conventional means. However, under certain scenarios as modelled using a sensitivity analysis this technology can compete and can therefore potentially contribute to the energy and resource sustainability of the economy, particularly in on-site applications with low-value waste feedstocks. The major areas for potential performance improvement are in reactor cost reductions, the reliable use of waste feedstocks and a high value end use for the char by-product from pyrolysis.

The main driver for the investigation of fast pyrolysis oil marine fuel blends is EU directive 2012/33/EU which aims to cut the sulphur content of marine fuel and thereby reduce air pollution caused by marine vessels. The aim of this study was to investigate the miscibility of three- and four- component blends containing pyrolysis oil, 1-butanol, biodiesel (RME) and/or marine gas oil (MGO). The ideal blend would be a stable homogenous product with a minimum amount of butanol, whilst maximising the amount of pyrolysis oil. A successful blend would have properties suitable for use in marine engines. In order to successfully utilise a marine fuel blend in commercial vessels it should meet minimum specification requirements such as a flash point ≥60°C. Blends of pyrolysis oil, RME, MGO and 1-butanol were evaluated and characterised. The mixed blends were inspected after 48 hours for homogeneity and the results plotted on a tri-plot phase diagram. Homogenous samples were tested for water content, pH, acid number, viscosity and flash point as these indicate a blend's suitability for engine testing. The work forms part of the ReShip Project which is funded by Norwegian industry partners and the Research Council of Norway (The ENERGIX programme).

Bio-oil from the fast pyrolysis of agro-residues still needs to contemplate different production scenarios to look for its feasibility. For this reason, in this work the effect of a range of fast pyrolysis temperature (450, 480, 510 and 550 °C) processing rape straw biomass (with high K content) has been studied in a continuous bubbling fluidised bed reactor. It was found that the catalytic effect of the inorganic content was different at each fast pyrolysis temperature, with the lower temperatures resulting in the highest yield of bio-oil due to minor catalytic effect (up to 41.39 wt%). It was also found that at 480 °C the bio-oil presented the best combination of physico-chemical features such as non-separation phase and the lowest water content; yield (39.65 wt%) and HHV (19.23 MJ/kg), containing a high concentration of phenolic compounds. At the fast pyrolysis temperature of 510 °C and 550 °C, the conjunction effect of temperature and the catalytic effect provoked bio-oil separation into two phases and a higher gas yield than was expected. Then, the higher temperatures are not suitable for bio-oil production. Char is also an interesting co-product for all pyrolysis temperatures.

Combined heat and power from the intermediate pyrolysis of biomass materials offers flexible, on-demand renewable energy with some significant advantages over other renewable routes. To maximise the deployment of this technology an understanding of the dynamics and sensitivities of such a system is required. In the present work the system performance, economics and life-cycle environmental impact is analysed with the aid of the process simulation software Aspen Plus. Under the base conditions for the UK, such schemes are not currently economically competitive with energy and char products produced from conventional means. However, under certain scenarios as modelled using a sensitivity analysis this technology can compete and can therefore potentially contribute to the energy and resource sustainability of the economy, particularly in on-site applications with low-value waste feedstocks. The major areas for potential performance improvement are in reactor cost reductions, the reliable use of waste feedstocks and a high value end use for the char by-product from pyrolysis.

The main driver for the investigation of fast pyrolysis oil marine fuel blends is EU directive 2012/33/EU which aims to cut the sulphur content of marine fuel and thereby reduce air pollution caused by marine vessels. The aim of this study was to investigate the miscibility of three- and four- component blends containing pyrolysis oil, 1-butanol, biodiesel (RME) and/or marine gas oil (MGO). The ideal blend would be a stable homogenous product with a minimum amount of butanol, whilst maximising the amount of pyrolysis oil. A successful blend would have properties suitable for use in marine engines. In order to successfully utilise a marine fuel blend in commercial vessels it should meet minimum specification requirements such as a flash point ≥60°C. Blends of pyrolysis oil, RME, MGO and 1-butanol were evaluated and characterised. The mixed blends were inspected after 48 hours for homogeneity and the results plotted on a tri-plot phase diagram. Homogenous samples were tested for water content, pH, acid number, viscosity and flash point as these indicate a blend's suitability for engine testing. The work forms part of the ReShip Project which is funded by Norwegian industry partners and the Research Council of Norway (The ENERGIX programme).

The main driver for the investigation of fast pyrolysis oil marine fuel blends is EU directive 2012/33/EU which aims to cut the sulphur content of marine fuel and thereby reduce air pollution caused by marine vessels. The aim of this study was to investigate the miscibility of three- and four- component blends containing pyrolysis oil, 1-butanol, biodiesel (RME) and/or marine gas oil (MGO). The ideal blend would be a stable homogenous product with a minimum amount of butanol, whilst maximising the amount of pyrolysis oil. A successful blend would have properties suitable for use in marine engines. In order to successfully utilise a marine fuel blend in commercial vessels it should meet minimum specification requirements such as a flash point ≥60°C. Blends of pyrolysis oil, RME, MGO and 1-butanol were evaluated and characterised. The mixed blends were inspected after 48 hours for homogeneity and the results plotted on a tri-plot phase diagram. Homogenous samples were tested for water content, pH, acid number, viscosity and flash point as these indicate a blend's suitability for engine testing. The work forms part of the ReShip Project which is funded by Norwegian industry partners and the Research Council of Norway (The ENERGIX programme).

Bio-oil from the fast pyrolysis of agro-residues still needs to contemplate different production scenarios to look for its feasibility. For this reason, in this work the effect of a range of fast pyrolysis temperature (450, 480, 510 and 550 °C) processing rape straw biomass (with high K content) has been studied in a continuous bubbling fluidised bed reactor. It was found that the catalytic effect of the inorganic content was different at each fast pyrolysis temperature, with the lower temperatures resulting in the highest yield of bio-oil due to minor catalytic effect (up to 41.39 wt%). It was also found that at 480 °C the bio-oil presented the best combination of physico-chemical features such as non-separation phase and the lowest water content; yield (39.65 wt%) and HHV (19.23 MJ/kg), containing a high concentration of phenolic compounds. At the fast pyrolysis temperature of 510 °C and 550 °C, the conjunction effect of temperature and the catalytic effect provoked bio-oil separation into two phases and a higher gas yield than was expected. Then, the higher temperatures are not suitable for bio-oil production. Char is also an interesting co-product for all pyrolysis temperatures.

Combined heat and power from the intermediate pyrolysis of biomass materials offers flexible, on-demand renewable energy with some significant advantages over other renewable routes. To maximise the deployment of this technology an understanding of the dynamics and sensitivities of such a system is required. In the present work the system performance, economics and life-cycle environmental impact is analysed with the aid of the process simulation software Aspen Plus. Under the base conditions for the UK, such schemes are not currently economically competitive with energy and char products produced from conventional means. However, under certain scenarios as modelled using a sensitivity analysis this technology can compete and can therefore potentially contribute to the energy and resource sustainability of the economy, particularly in on-site applications with low-value waste feedstocks. The major areas for potential performance improvement are in reactor cost reductions, the reliable use of waste feedstocks and a high value end use for the char by-product from pyrolysis.

In this study, rice husk and corn stalk have been pyrolyzed in an auger pyrolysis reactor at pyrolysis temperatures of 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, and 600 °C in order to investigate the effect of the pyrolysis temperature on the pyrolysis performance of the reactor and physicochemical properties of pyrolysis products (this paper focuses on char and gas). The results have shown that the pyrolysis temperature significantly affects the mass yields and properties of the pyrolysis products. The mass yields of pyrolysis liquid and char are comparable to those reported for the same feedstocks processed in fluidized bed reactors. With the increase of the pyrolysis temperature, the pyrolysis liquid yield shows a peak at 500 °C, the char yield decreases, and the gas yield increases for both feedstocks. The higher heating value (HHV) and volatile matter content of char increase as the pyrolysis temperature increases from 350 to 600 °C. The gases obtained from the pyrolysis of rice husk and corn stalk mainly contain CO2, CO, CH4, H2, and other light hydrocarbons; the molar fractions of combustible gases increase and therefore their HHVs subsequently increase with the increase of the pyrolysis temperature.

In this study, rice husk and corn stalk have been pyrolyzed in an auger pyrolysis reactor at pyrolysis temperatures of 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, and 600 °C in order to investigate the effect of the pyrolysis temperature on the pyrolysis performance of the reactor and physicochemical properties of pyrolysis products (this paper focuses on char and gas). The results have shown that the pyrolysis temperature significantly affects the mass yields and properties of the pyrolysis products. The mass yields of pyrolysis liquid and char are comparable to those reported for the same feedstocks processed in fluidized bed reactors. With the increase of the pyrolysis temperature, the pyrolysis liquid yield shows a peak at 500 °C, the char yield decreases, and the gas yield increases for both feedstocks. The higher heating value (HHV) and volatile matter content of char increase as the pyrolysis temperature increases from 350 to 600 °C. The gases obtained from the pyrolysis of rice husk and corn stalk mainly contain CO2, CO, CH4, H2, and other light hydrocarbons; the molar fractions of combustible gases increase and therefore their HHVs subsequently increase with the increase of the pyrolysis temperature.

In this study, rice husk and corn stalk have been pyrolyzed in an auger pyrolysis reactor at pyrolysis temperatures of 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, and 600 °C in order to investigate the effect of the pyrolysis temperature on the pyrolysis performance of the reactor and physicochemical properties of pyrolysis products (this paper focuses on char and gas). The results have shown that the pyrolysis temperature significantly affects the mass yields and properties of the pyrolysis products. The mass yields of pyrolysis liquid and char are comparable to those reported for the same feedstocks processed in fluidized bed reactors. With the increase of the pyrolysis temperature, the pyrolysis liquid yield shows a peak at 500 °C, the char yield decreases, and the gas yield increases for both feedstocks. The higher heating value (HHV) and volatile matter content of char increase as the pyrolysis temperature increases from 350 to 600 °C. The gases obtained from the pyrolysis of rice husk and corn stalk mainly contain CO2, CO, CH4, H2, and other light hydrocarbons; the molar fractions of combustible gases increase and therefore their HHVs subsequently increase with the increase of the pyrolysis temperature.

In this study, rice husk and corn stalk have been pyrolyzed in an auger pyrolysis reactor at pyrolysis temperatures of 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, and 600 °C in order to investigate the effect of the pyrolysis temperature on the pyrolysis performance of the reactor and physicochemical properties of pyrolysis products (this paper focuses on char and gas). The results have shown that the pyrolysis temperature significantly affects the mass yields and properties of the pyrolysis products. The mass yields of pyrolysis liquid and char are comparable to those reported for the same feedstocks processed in fluidized bed reactors. With the increase of the pyrolysis temperature, the pyrolysis liquid yield shows a peak at 500 °C, the char yield decreases, and the gas yield increases for both feedstocks. The higher heating value (HHV) and volatile matter content of char increase as the pyrolysis temperature increases from 350 to 600 °C. The gases obtained from the pyrolysis of rice husk and corn stalk mainly contain CO2, CO, CH4, H2, and other light hydrocarbons; the molar fractions of combustible gases increase and therefore their HHVs subsequently increase with the increase of the pyrolysis temperature.

The present paper offers a methodological approach towards the estimation and definition of enthalpies constituting an energy balance around a fast pyrolysis experiment conducted in a laboratory scale fluid bed with a capacity of 1 kg/ h. Pure N2 was used as fluidization medium at atmospheric pressure and the operating temperature (∼500°C) was adjusted with electrical resistors. The biomass feedstock type that was used was beech wood. An effort was made to achieve a satisfying 92.5% retrieval of products (dry basis mass balance) with the differences mainly attributed to loss of some bio-oil constituents into the quenching medium, ISOPAR™. The chemical enthalpy recovery for bio-oil, char and permanent gases is calculated 64.6%, 14.5% and 7.1%, respectively. All the energy losses from the experimental unit into the environment, namely the pyrolyser, cooling unit etc. are discussed and compared to the heat of fast pyrolysis that was calculated at 1123.5 kJ per kg of beech wood. This only represents 2.4% of the biomass total enthalpy or 6.5% its HHV basis. For the estimation of some important thermo-physical properties such as heat capacity and density, it was found that using data based on the identified compounds from the GC/MS analysis is very close to the reference values despite the small fraction of the bio-oil components detected. The methodology and results can help as a starting point for the proper design of fast pyrolysis experiments, pilot and/or industrial scale plants.

The present paper offers a methodological approach towards the estimation and definition of enthalpies constituting an energy balance around a fast pyrolysis experiment conducted in a laboratory scale fluid bed with a capacity of 1 kg/ h. Pure N2 was used as fluidization medium at atmospheric pressure and the operating temperature (∼500°C) was adjusted with electrical resistors. The biomass feedstock type that was used was beech wood. An effort was made to achieve a satisfying 92.5% retrieval of products (dry basis mass balance) with the differences mainly attributed to loss of some bio-oil constituents into the quenching medium, ISOPAR™. The chemical enthalpy recovery for bio-oil, char and permanent gases is calculated 64.6%, 14.5% and 7.1%, respectively. All the energy losses from the experimental unit into the environment, namely the pyrolyser, cooling unit etc. are discussed and compared to the heat of fast pyrolysis that was calculated at 1123.5 kJ per kg of beech wood. This only represents 2.4% of the biomass total enthalpy or 6.5% its HHV basis. For the estimation of some important thermo-physical properties such as heat capacity and density, it was found that using data based on the identified compounds from the GC/MS analysis is very close to the reference values despite the small fraction of the bio-oil components detected. The methodology and results can help as a starting point for the proper design of fast pyrolysis experiments, pilot and/or industrial scale plants.

The present paper offers a methodological approach towards the estimation and definition of enthalpies constituting an energy balance around a fast pyrolysis experiment conducted in a laboratory scale fluid bed with a capacity of 1 kg/ h. Pure N2 was used as fluidization medium at atmospheric pressure and the operating temperature (∼500°C) was adjusted with electrical resistors. The biomass feedstock type that was used was beech wood. An effort was made to achieve a satisfying 92.5% retrieval of products (dry basis mass balance) with the differences mainly attributed to loss of some bio-oil constituents into the quenching medium, ISOPAR™. The chemical enthalpy recovery for bio-oil, char and permanent gases is calculated 64.6%, 14.5% and 7.1%, respectively. All the energy losses from the experimental unit into the environment, namely the pyrolyser, cooling unit etc. are discussed and compared to the heat of fast pyrolysis that was calculated at 1123.5 kJ per kg of beech wood. This only represents 2.4% of the biomass total enthalpy or 6.5% its HHV basis. For the estimation of some important thermo-physical properties such as heat capacity and density, it was found that using data based on the identified compounds from the GC/MS analysis is very close to the reference values despite the small fraction of the bio-oil components detected. The methodology and results can help as a starting point for the proper design of fast pyrolysis experiments, pilot and/or industrial scale plants.

The present paper offers a methodological approach towards the estimation and definition of enthalpies constituting an energy balance around a fast pyrolysis experiment conducted in a laboratory scale fluid bed with a capacity of 1 kg/ h. Pure N2 was used as fluidization medium at atmospheric pressure and the operating temperature (∼500°C) was adjusted with electrical resistors. The biomass feedstock type that was used was beech wood. An effort was made to achieve a satisfying 92.5% retrieval of products (dry basis mass balance) with the differences mainly attributed to loss of some bio-oil constituents into the quenching medium, ISOPAR™. The chemical enthalpy recovery for bio-oil, char and permanent gases is calculated 64.6%, 14.5% and 7.1%, respectively. All the energy losses from the experimental unit into the environment, namely the pyrolyser, cooling unit etc. are discussed and compared to the heat of fast pyrolysis that was calculated at 1123.5 kJ per kg of beech wood. This only represents 2.4% of the biomass total enthalpy or 6.5% its HHV basis. For the estimation of some important thermo-physical properties such as heat capacity and density, it was found that using data based on the identified compounds from the GC/MS analysis is very close to the reference values despite the small fraction of the bio-oil components detected. The methodology and results can help as a starting point for the proper design of fast pyrolysis experiments, pilot and/or industrial scale plants.

Miscanthus × giganteus was subjected to pre-treatment with deionised water, hydrochloric acid or Triton X-100 surfactant, and subsequently fast pyrolysed in a fluidised bed reactor at 535 °C to obtain bio-oil. Triton X-100 surfactant was identified as a promising pre-treatment medium for removal of inorganic matter because its physicochemical nature was expected to mobilise inorganic matter in the biomass matrix. The influence of different concentrations of Triton X-100 pre-treatment solutions on the quality of bio-oil produced from fast pyrolysis was studied, as defined by a single phase bio-oil, viscosity index and water content index. The highest concentration of Triton X-100 surfactant produced the best quality bio-oil with high organic yield and low reaction water content. The calculated viscosity index from the accelerated ageing test showed that bio-oil stability improved as the concentration of Triton X-100 increased.

Miscanthus × giganteus was subjected to pre-treatment with deionised water, hydrochloric acid or Triton X-100 surfactant, and subsequently fast pyrolysed in a fluidised bed reactor at 535 °C to obtain bio-oil. Triton X-100 surfactant was identified as a promising pre-treatment medium for removal of inorganic matter because its physicochemical nature was expected to mobilise inorganic matter in the biomass matrix. The influence of different concentrations of Triton X-100 pre-treatment solutions on the quality of bio-oil produced from fast pyrolysis was studied, as defined by a single phase bio-oil, viscosity index and water content index. The highest concentration of Triton X-100 surfactant produced the best quality bio-oil with high organic yield and low reaction water content. The calculated viscosity index from the accelerated ageing test showed that bio-oil stability improved as the concentration of Triton X-100 increased.

Miscanthus × giganteus was subjected to pre-treatment with deionised water, hydrochloric acid or Triton X-100 surfactant, and subsequently fast pyrolysed in a fluidised bed reactor at 535 °C to obtain bio-oil. Triton X-100 surfactant was identified as a promising pre-treatment medium for removal of inorganic matter because its physicochemical nature was expected to mobilise inorganic matter in the biomass matrix. The influence of different concentrations of Triton X-100 pre-treatment solutions on the quality of bio-oil produced from fast pyrolysis was studied, as defined by a single phase bio-oil, viscosity index and water content index. The highest concentration of Triton X-100 surfactant produced the best quality bio-oil with high organic yield and low reaction water content. The calculated viscosity index from the accelerated ageing test showed that bio-oil stability improved as the concentration of Triton X-100 increased.

Miscanthus × giganteus was subjected to pre-treatment with deionised water, hydrochloric acid or Triton X-100 surfactant, and subsequently fast pyrolysed in a fluidised bed reactor at 535 °C to obtain bio-oil. Triton X-100 surfactant was identified as a promising pre-treatment medium for removal of inorganic matter because its physicochemical nature was expected to mobilise inorganic matter in the biomass matrix. The influence of different concentrations of Triton X-100 pre-treatment solutions on the quality of bio-oil produced from fast pyrolysis was studied, as defined by a single phase bio-oil, viscosity index and water content index. The highest concentration of Triton X-100 surfactant produced the best quality bio-oil with high organic yield and low reaction water content. The calculated viscosity index from the accelerated ageing test showed that bio-oil stability improved as the concentration of Triton X-100 increased.

Pyrolysis is one of the three main thermo-chemical routes to convert biomass into useful primary energy products. Fast pyrolysis has benefited from active research programmes since the 1980's in order to obtain bio-oils, which can be used in engines for the generation of electricity or after refining in transport. Today, several demonstration plants are operating in Europe and North America where significant quantities of bio-oils are produced for research and development purposes and several commercial plants are at an advanced stage of planning. Thus, for a commercial development the question of safety procedures for human health and environment preservation is raised. The aim of this ongoing European Project (Biotox) is to comprehensively assess toxicity and eco-toxicity of a representative bio-oil after preliminary screening of a wide range of bio-oils from different processes and temperatures in order to: - identify the best operating conditions avoiding or minimising the formation of toxic products from the composition of the bio-oils, - produce a comprehensive and definitive MSDS with the proper preventive and remedial procedures to adopt during production, transport and use of bio-oils, - produce fast pyrolysis bio-oils with low impact on human health and environment by avoiding bio-oils production presenting potential toxic characteristics. In the project, the relation between process parameters on one hand and chemical composition and toxicity for human health and environment on the other hand will be investigated so as to recommend the operating conditions to produce bio-oils with the lowest impacts. Then, the optimised compositions of bio-oils will be submitted to the mandatory tests required by the EU legal authority, the objective being the definition of secure handling and storage procedures, in order to control the risks related to the product for the population and the environment. The effects of different types of exposure (inhalation, ingestion or

Pyrolysis is one of the three main thermo-chemical routes to convert biomass into useful primary energy products. Fast pyrolysis has benefited from active research programmes since the 1980's in order to obtain bio-oils, which can be used in engines for the generation of electricity or after refining in transport. Today, several demonstration plants are operating in Europe and North America where significant quantities of bio-oils are produced for research and development purposes and several commercial plants are at an advanced stage of planning. Thus, for a commercial development the question of safety procedures for human health and environment preservation is raised. The aim of this ongoing European Project (Biotox) is to comprehensively assess toxicity and eco-toxicity of a representative bio-oil after preliminary screening of a wide range of bio-oils from different processes and temperatures in order to: - identify the best operating conditions avoiding or minimising the formation of toxic products from the composition of the bio-oils, - produce a comprehensive and definitive MSDS with the proper preventive and remedial procedures to adopt during production, transport and use of bio-oils, - produce fast pyrolysis bio-oils with low impact on human health and environment by avoiding bio-oils production presenting potential toxic characteristics. In the project, the relation between process parameters on one hand and chemical composition and toxicity for human health and environment on the other hand will be investigated so as to recommend the operating conditions to produce bio-oils with the lowest impacts. Then, the optimised compositions of bio-oils will be submitted to the mandatory tests required by the EU legal authority, the objective being the definition of secure handling and storage procedures, in order to control the risks related to the product for the population and the environment. The effects of different types of exposure (inhalation, ingestion or

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A general selection procedure has been developed in an attempt to establish the most feasible and economic process for manufacturing a shaped iron product from an iron-bearing feedstock such as a low grade home iron ore. The criteria used in making this selection were information availability, technical feasibility, and economics of a rudimentary nature. A computer programme based on simple compatibility rules was developed to assist in the early elimination of many of the alternatives. As a result of this selection, six processing routes are recommended.

The significance of various raw materials to the UK has been modelled using existing data on economics of production, quantities produced and availability. An initial analysis identified copper, aluminium, iron and oil to be of particular importance out of the 67 metals, minerals and fuels considered., The significance of various raw materials to the UK has been modelled using existing data on economics of production, quantities produced and availability. An initial analysis identified copper, aluminium, iron and oil to be of particular importance out of the 67 metals, minerals and fuels considered.