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The current best evidence meta-analysis reanalyzed the data from a meta-analysis by Graham et al. (J Educ Psychol 115:1004–1027, 2023). This meta-analysis and the prior one examined if teaching writing improved the writing of students in Grades 6 to 12, examining effects from writing intervention studies employing experimental and quasi-experimental designs (with pretests). In contrast to the prior meta-analysis, we eliminated all N of 1 treatment/control comparisons, studies with an attrition rate over 20%, studies that did not control for teacher effects, and studies that did not contain at least one reliable writing measure (0.70 or greater). Any writing outcome that was not reliable was also eliminated. Across 148 independent treatment/control comparisons, yielding 1,076 writing effect sizes (ESs) involving 22,838 students, teaching writing resulted in a positive and statistically detectable impact on students’ writing (ES = 0.38). Further, six of the 10 writing treatments tested in four or more independent comparisons improved students’ performance. This included the process approach to writing (0.75), strategy instruction (0.59), transcription instruction (0.54), feedback (0.30), pre-writing activities (0.32), and peer assistance (0.59). In addition, the Self-Regulated Strategy Development model for teaching writing strategies yielded a statistically significant ES of 0.84, whereas other approaches to teaching writing strategies resulted in a statistically significant ES of 0.51. The findings from this meta-analysis and the Graham et al. (2023) review which included studies that were methodologically weaker were compared. Implications for practice, research, and theory are presented.

There is considerable concern that many adolescents do not attain the writing competence needed to be successful in school, their personal lives, or the workplace. Ensuring that students acquire this competence is a basic responsibility of schools. In order to meet this objective, teachers need access to effective practices for teaching writing. In this meta-analysis, we examined if teaching writing improved the writing and reading of students in Grades 6–12, and what specific writing treatments enhanced students’ writing. Our review included writing treatments tested using an experimental or quasi-experimental design (with pretests) and published and unpublished studies, and computed effect sizes (ESs) for all writing and reading outcomes assessed. Across 406 independent comparisons, yielding 3,514 ESs involving 52,529 students, teaching writing had a positive and statistically detectable impact on students’ writing (ES=0.47) and reading (ES= 0.22). Moreover, a variety of different writing treatments improved students’ performance on writing measures. Across all writing outcomes, statistically detectable effects (presented in parentheses) were obtained for comprehensive writing programs (0.47; which included the process approach to writing), strategy instruction (0.76), digital writing tools (0.31), transcription instruction (0.71), computer-assisted instruction (0.32), teaching critical/creative thinking skills for writing (0.27), emulating good models of writing (0.46), feedback (0.34), goal setting (0.44), prewriting activities (0.49), grammar instruction (0.77), sentence instruction (0.73), inquiry (0.92), observing writers/readers, peer assistance (0.41), summarization instruction (0.49), and text structure instruction (0.39). Implications for practice, research, and theory are discussed.

This study investigated the different characteristics of not-pass (n = 174), adequate-pass (n = 173), and strong-pass (n = 114) text-based, analytical essays written by middle and high school students. Essays were drawn from the 2015-2016 Pathway writing and reading intervention pretests and posttests. Results revealed the use of relevant summary was an important difference between not-pass and adequate-pass essays where significantly more adequate-pass essays used summary in a purposeful rather than general way. In contrast, major characteristics that set apart strong-pass essays from adequate-pass essays involved providing analysis and including a clear conclusion or end. Factors that affected these characteristics such as whether the writer made claims and comments about the text are discussed, and some instructional strategies are suggested. Keywords: writing proficiency, writing instruction, adolescent literacy, text-based analytical writing, on-demand writing assessment

This study investigated the different characteristics of not-pass (n = 174), adequate-pass (n = 173), and strong-pass (n = 114) text-based, analytical essays written by middle and high school students. Essays were drawn from the 2015-2016 Pathway writing and reading intervention pretests and posttests. Results revealed the use of relevant summary was an important difference between not-pass and adequate-pass essays where significantly more adequate-pass essays used summary in a purposeful rather than general way. In contrast, major characteristics that set apart strong-pass essays from adequate-pass essays involved providing analysis and including a clear conclusion or end. Factors that affected these characteristics such as whether the writer made claims and comments about the text are discussed, and some instructional strategies are suggested. Keywords: writing proficiency, writing instruction, adolescent literacy, text-based analytical writing, on-demand writing assessment

This study investigated the different characteristics of not-pass (n = 174), adequate-pass (n = 173), and strong-pass (n = 114) text-based, analytical essays written by middle and high school students. Essays were drawn from the 2015-2016 Pathway writing and reading intervention pretests and posttests. Results revealed the use of relevant summary was an important difference between not-pass and adequate-pass essays where significantly more adequate-pass essays used summary in a purposeful rather than general way. In contrast, major characteristics that set apart strong-pass essays from adequate-pass essays involved providing analysis and including a clear conclusion or end. Factors that affected these characteristics such as whether the writer made claims and comments about the text are discussed, and some instructional strategies are suggested. Keywords: writing proficiency, writing instruction, adolescent literacy, text-based analytical writing, on-demand writing assessment

Given that teacher professional development is a part of teachers’ professional lives and given that billions of dollars have been invested in teacher professional development, this dissertation advocates for research that studies teacher learning and the conditions under which they learn, as an equally important component of studying the impact of professional development on students’ test scores, achievement, and/or learning. The Pathway Project, a research-based literacy professional development program, served as the study context. The Pathway Project provides teachers with tools to use in their practice to support students in reading and writing using a cognitive strategies approach (Olson & Land, 2007). Using data in the form of observational protocols, survey measures, teacher focus groups, and field notes, as well as, qualitative analytic methods, I investigated: (1) how teachers appropriated Pathway tools for their practice; (2) teachers’ perceptions about their participation in the Pathway Project and subsequent impact on student perceptions and learning; and (3) how the Pathway Project design impacted opportunities for teachers’ learning. My findings are centralized around the role tools play in teachers’ enactment of the Pathway Project, teachers’ perceptions, and the design of professional development. Data analysis revealed that teachers appropriated the tools in a variety of ways. The teachers responded positively to tools that were easy or moderately easy to implement and they were more willing to use these tools and often used them soon after they were introduced. I also found that the teachers perceived the Pathway Project as a valuable experience and mainly spoke of the ease of implementation of Pathway tools to help their students read and write more analytically. Importantly, they found assessment tools to be more difficult to navigate. Their students also had positive perceptions, noting that they did more writing, worked harder, and scored

Given that teacher professional development is a part of teachers’ professional lives and given that billions of dollars have been invested in teacher professional development, this dissertation advocates for research that studies teacher learning and the conditions under which they learn, as an equally important component of studying the impact of professional development on students’ test scores, achievement, and/or learning. The Pathway Project, a research-based literacy professional development program, served as the study context. The Pathway Project provides teachers with tools to use in their practice to support students in reading and writing using a cognitive strategies approach (Olson & Land, 2007). Using data in the form of observational protocols, survey measures, teacher focus groups, and field notes, as well as, qualitative analytic methods, I investigated: (1) how teachers appropriated Pathway tools for their practice; (2) teachers’ perceptions about their participation in the Pathway Project and subsequent impact on student perceptions and learning; and (3) how the Pathway Project design impacted opportunities for teachers’ learning. My findings are centralized around the role tools play in teachers’ enactment of the Pathway Project, teachers’ perceptions, and the design of professional development. Data analysis revealed that teachers appropriated the tools in a variety of ways. The teachers responded positively to tools that were easy or moderately easy to implement and they were more willing to use these tools and often used them soon after they were introduced. I also found that the teachers perceived the Pathway Project as a valuable experience and mainly spoke of the ease of implementation of Pathway tools to help their students read and write more analytically. Importantly, they found assessment tools to be more difficult to navigate. Their students also had positive perceptions, noting that they did more writing, worked harder, and scored