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Continuous casting is by far the most widely used casting method for steel production all over the world. The Swedish steel industry has specialized in niche products with high quality. To obtain high-quality steel, flow control is crucial when operating the caster. Computational fluid dynamics is used in the research and development of steel production to gain knowledge and optimize flow control, with meshing being a crucial step. One challenge with meshing is finding the balance between computational cost (time and storage) and accuracy. This study investigated whether polyhedral mesh elements would be suffcient for modeling turbulent flow in continuous casting. Firstly, Ansys Fluent's polyhedral converter was used on an existing mesh containing tetrahedral and hexahedral elements. The mesh quality in terms of skewness, orthogonality, and aspect ratio was studied. The results showed that the polyhedral converter lowered the cell count and slightly improved the quality compared to the original mesh. However, more research is needed with other meshes and actual simulations to determine if it is suffcient for modeling turbulent flow in continuous casting. Following that, two new meshes were generated: one polyhedral and one poly-hexcore mesh, both using Ansys Fluent Meshing, and their mesh quality was analyzed as in the first case. These meshes were then simulated with the Large Eddy Simulation model for steel, slag, and air for 60 seconds. They were compared and evaluated using production data in the form of steel layer fluctuations and nail board measurements. The results from the polyhedral and poly-hexcore meshes showed that both meshes had good, equal quality and cell count. Even so, due to the construction of the poly-hexcore, switching between polyhedral and hexahedral elements, and the occurrence of hanging nodes, the simulation showed signs of discretization errors. This might have also contributed to the lower flow velocities at the steel layer compared to, Stränggjutning är den främsta metoden använt för stålproduktion över hela världen. Den svenska stålindustrin har specialiserat sig på nischade produkter med hög kvalitet. För att uppnå högkvalitativt stål är flödeskontroll avgörande vid drift av gjutmaskinen. Numeriska strömningsberäkningar används i forskningen och utvecklingen av stålproduktion för att skaffa kunskap och optimera flödeskontrollen, där meshing är ett avgörande steg. En utmaning med meshing är att hitta balansen mellan beräkningskostnad (tid och lagring) och noggrannhet. Denna studie undersökte om polyhedrala mesh-element skulle vara tillräckliga för att modellera turbulent flöde i stränggjutning. Först användes Ansys Fluents polyhedrala konverterare på en befintlig mesh, innehållande tetrahedrala och hexahedrala element. Meshkvalitén i termer av skevhet, ortogonalitet och aspektförhållande studerades. Resultaten visade att den polyhedrala konverteraren sänkte cellantalet och förbättrade kvaliteten något jämfört med den ursprungliga meshen. Dock behövs mer forskning med andra mesher, och faktiska simuleringar, för att avgöra om den är tillräcklig för att modellera turbulent flöde i stränggjutning. Därefter genererades två nya mesher: ett polyhedralt och en poly-hexcore, båda med hjälp av Ansys Fluent Meshing, och precis som i det första fallet, studerades deras meshkvalitet. Dessa två meshes simulerades sedan med Large Eddy Simulation-modellen för stål, slagg och luft i 60 sekunder. De jämfördes och utvärderades med hjälp av produktionsdata i form av stålnivå, fluktuationer och 'nail board'-mätningar. Resultaten från det polyhedrala och poly-hexcore meshen visade att båda mesherna hade god och likvärdiga kvalitéer samt cellantal. Trots detta, på grund av uppbyggnaden av poly-hexcore meshen, alltså växlingen mellan polyhedrala och hexahedrala element och förekomsten av hängande noder, visade simuleringen tecken på diskretiseringsfel. Detta kan också ha bidragit till de lägre flödeshastigheterna vid s

Reoxidation is a phenomenon that occurs in steel products during the initial stage of the formation of liquid steel, mainly during casting. This leads to the formation of inclusions which is a common problem that affects the properties, such as strength and ductility of the steel, and thus decreases its quality. To investigate these inclusions an electrolytic extraction and a scanning electron microscope(SEM) were performed on four carbon steel samples taken before and throughout continuous casting. To get a better understanding of the inclusions, the chemical composition, morphology, and sizes were analyzed, these were measured with the software ImageJ. As a result, five types of inclusions were identified, these include reoxidation, deoxidation, desulphurization, and complex compositions. Each type was represented by specific compounds and elements, such as FeO for reoxidation inclusions and Al2O3 for deoxidation inclusions. Additionally, inclusion morphology and size were significant classification factors, with film inclusions presenting larger sizes compared to other types, while spherical inclusions were observed perfectly, spherical ones were often associated with pure FeO content. Despite successful electrolytic extraction and SEM analysis, the number of inclusions obtained was lower than expected due to the presence of an additional layer of carbides. Future research may benefit from additional heating treatments to facilitate deeper analysis of inclusions., Reoxidation är ett fenomen som uppstår i stålprodukter under gjutning. Detta leder till bildning av inneslutningar vilket är ett vanligt problem som påverkar egenskaperna, såsom hållfasthet och formbarhet hos stålet, och därmed minskar dess kvalitet. För att undersöka dessa inneslutningar utfördes en elektrolytisk extraktion och en SEM på fyra kolstålprover tagna före och under stränggjutning. För att få en bättre förståelse av inneslutningarna analyserades den kemiska sammansättningen, morfologin och storlekarna, dessa mättes med programvaran ImageJ. Som ett resultat identifierades fem typer av inneslutningar, dessa inkluderar reoxidation, deoxidation, avsvavling och komplexa kompositioner. Varje typ representerades av specifika föreningar och element, såsom FeO för reoxidationsinneslutningar och Al2O3 för deoxidationsinneslutningar. Dessutom var inklusionsmorfologi och storlek signifikanta klassificeringsfaktorer, med filminneslutningar som presenterade större storlekar jämfört medandra typer, medan sfäriska inneslutningar, observerades perfekt sfäriska sådana var ofta associerade med rent FeO-innehåll. Trots framgångsrik elektrolytisk extraktion och SEM-analys var antalet erhållna inneslutningar lägre än förväntat på grund av närvaron av ytterligare ett lager karbider. Framtida forskning kan dra nytta av ytterligare värmebehandlingar för att underlätta djupare analys av inneslutningar.

Contactless Inductive Flow Tomography (CIFT) is a flow measurement technique allowing for visualizing the global flow in electrically conducting fluids. The method is based on the precise measurement of very weak induced magnetic fields arising from the fluid motion under the influence of one or several primary excitation magnetic field(s). At HZDR the technique is used to investigate laboratory experiments on turbulent Rayleigh-Bénard convection (RBC) phenomena as well as the industrial process of continuous casting (CC) of steel. In both cases the ternary liquid metal alloy Gallium-Indium-Tin is used as a model fluid. We will present latest experimental results on both topics, including a sophisticated flow analysis for RBC by means of Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) and the first CIFT online process controller for CC. Furthermore, we will give an outlook on the latest developments, namely the two-field excitation approach to increase the accuracy of the method.

Surface defects in steel slabs during continuous casting pose significant challengesfor quality control and product integrity in the steel industry. Predicting and classifyingthese defects accurately is crucial for ensuring product quality and minimizing productionlosses. This thesis investigates the effectiveness of machine learning models in predictingsurface defects of varying severity levels (ordinal classes) during the primary coolingstage of continuous casting. The study evaluates four machine learning algorithms,namely, XGBoost (main and baseline models), Decision Tree, and One-vs.-Rest SupportVector Machine (O-SVM), all trained with imbalanced defect class data. Model evaluationis conducted using a set of performance metrics, including precision, recall, F1-score,accuracy, macro-averaged Mean Absolute Error (MAE), Receiver Operating Characteristic(ROC) curves, Weighted Kappa and Ordinal Classification Index (OCI). Results indicatethat the XGBoost main model demonstrates robust performance across most evaluationmetrics, with high accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score. Furthermore, incorporatingtemperature data from the primary cooling process inside the mold significantly enhancesthe predictive capabilities of machine learning models for defect prediction in continuouscasting. Key process parameters associated with defect formation, such as tundish temperature,casting speed, stopper rod argon pressure, and submerged entry nozzle (SEN) argonflow, are identified as significant contributors to defect severity. Feature importance andSHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) analysis reveal insights into the relationship betweenprocess variables and defect formation. Challenges and trade-offs, including modelcomplexity, interpretability, and computational efficiency, are discussed. Future researchdirections include further optimization and refinement of machine learning models andcollaboration with industry stakeholders to develop tailored solutions for defect pred

The formation and behavior of gas bubbles is experimentally investigated in a liquid metal downward pipe flow, a configuration that largely corresponds to the situation in a submerged entry nozzle (SEN) in the continuous casting process in steel making. The experimental mockup is operated at room temperature using the ternary alloy GaInSn as model fluid. Argon gas is injected through an orifice located in the SEN wall. The gas distribution in the pipe is visualized by means of the X-ray radiography. The set-up is completed by an electromagnetic stirrer, which is used to create a swirling flow in the tube. Depending on the volume flow rates of the gas and the liquid metal, as well as the intensity of the swirl flow generated by the stirrer, 4 flow regimes are observed: (1) the formation of an almost stationary gas pocket in the region below the injection point without any electromagnetic stirring, (2) a twisted void zone along the side wall, (3) a straight void zone in the center of the pipe, and (4) a bubble chain in the core of the pipe flow. The experiments reveal that the wetting conditions at the inner SEN wall have a decisive influence on the resulting flow regime.

Copper and copper alloys are important material systems for the electrification of society. The high workability of the materials makes them appropriate in numerous different applications which require highly conductive properties. One main advantage of Cu and Cu-bearing alloys is the eminent ability to be repeatedly recycled without losing the advantageous properties. This raises the question whether scrap alloys from secondary copper production can be reintroduced into continuous copper casting processes to increase the overall recyclability. The primary goal was to identify current scrap rates from the Vertical Upwards Continuous Cast (VUCC) process and assess methods to increase scrap recyclability. Scrap from the VUCC process was found to constitute of 16% of the total monthly production volume of CuMg0.49 alloy with a diameter of 30 mm at Elcowire AB. Scrap originated mainly from the process start-up phase and also from process related issues. Studies were carried out to evaluate if additional 400 ppm Mg decreased the start-up time and scrap rate. The method showed no beneficial results to decreasing the start-up time and further assessments are needed. No negative effect was observed regarding coil composition, but instead indicated the difficulties to control the Mg content in the melt throughout production. Mg losses to slag were found by the means of SEM and XEDS as MgO particles. The exposed Cu melt must therefore be more sufficiently protected, where an inert Ar gas flux may be applied. There is currently no feasible method to incorporate scrap into the VUCC process without redesigning the entire process. Produced scrap may instead be used in the SCR® rolling mill during ETP copper production, where results showed that the impurity content must be controlled, and Mg content is the main limiting factor. Further assessments are needed in terms of contaminant contribution to slag formation, effect on finished ETP copper and economic viability. The method do, Med det ökande behovet att minska användandet av fossila bränslen så är metaller ett utmärkt alternativ för att elektrifiera samhället. Koppar är en av de viktigaste metallerna på grund av de stora mängder som förekommer naturligt på vår planet. Det är även på grund av dess utmärkta egenskaper. Sedan koppar upptäckes för flera århundraden sedan har användandet fortsatt att öka. Koppar och dess egenskaper kan ändras för att passa flertalet olika tillämpningar och produkter. Detta görs genom att tillsätta andra grundämnen eller genom att bearbeta metallen genom olika tillverkningsprocesser. Koppar kan även återvinnas om och om igen utan att förlora dess goda egenskaper. Detta projekt fokuserade på återvinning av kopparskrot från en gjutningsprocess som tillverkar koppartråd till produkter som är överallt runtomkring oss, exempelvis till kontaktledningar och vindkraftverk. För att utvärdera återvinningsmöjligheter är det också viktigt att fastställa nuvarande skrotmängder. Koppar och kopparlegeringar som tråd tillverkas vanligen i stränggjutningsprocesser. Detta möjliggör att tillverka tråd av önskad längd. Egenskaper som hållfasthet och elektrisk konduktivitet är viktiga. Vertikala stränggjutningsprocesser används vanligtvis för att producera syrefritt koppar. Syrefritt koppar har ett väldigt lågt syreinnehåll, vilket bibehåller trådens renhet och höga konduktans. Den höga konduktiviteten kan bevaras genom att låglegera koppar, vilket samtidigt gör materialet starkare och mer hållfast. Exempel på legeringsämnen som kan tillsättas till koppar är magnesium, silver och tenn. Vid vertikal stränggjutning av syrefritt koppar med låga tillsatser av magnesium så uppstod 16% (nästan 30 ton) skrot under en månad. Skrotet kommer främst från uppstartsfasen, men även på grund av processproblem. Ett försök gjordes att minska uppstartsskrot genom att tillsätta extra magnesium innan processens helgstillestånd. Den extra tillsatsen skulle fungera som en buffert, då en del magnesium fö

In order to improve the continuous casting process of steel, it’s important to have an understanding of the fuid mechanics of the casting process. As experiments on a real caster are usually impractical, both physical and numerical modeling are important for creating this understanding. This report concerns itself with the creation of a numerical model of a physical model of a slab caster, which uses eutectic bismuth-tin alloy to simulate steel, and is built and operated by Swerim in Luleå, Sweden. The geometry of the model was constructed in Siemens NX, and meshing was done using Ansys Meshing. The CFD model itself was made in Ansys Fluent, and data from previous experiments on the physical model was used to verify it. The numerical model does not model any discrete phases in the liquid metal, including slag, argon fow, solid particles or any form of phase transition or heat transfer. The model uses a pump to continuously recirculate the liquid metal into the tundish, from where it fows down into the mold. Qualitatively, the model shows the expected double-roll fow pattern in the mold, and also pressure gradients in the SEN entry region which are consistent with experimental data. Verifcation was done using experimentally determined pump curves, for which the model shows reasonable behavior for mass fows above roughly 20 kg/s, but deviates somewhat below this value. Verifcation was also done using data for mass fows out of the tundish, which is regulated by the stopper position. Here, a large discrepancy between experimental and simulated data is present. Several explanations for this discrepancy were investigated, including the possibility of improper calibration of the stopper positional tracking and incorrect data for dynamic viscosity of the alloy, but the most likely explanation is that cavitation occurs in the SEN entry region due to a large pressure drop which occurs in this region. Cavitation is not implemented in the model, which leads to incorrect mass fo

In this article, we investigate the estimation of the transient mold-slab heat flux in continuous casting molds given some thermocouples measurements in the mold plates. Mathematically, we can see this problem as the estimation of a Neumann boundary condition given pointwise state observations in the interior of the domain. We formulate it in a deterministic inverse problem setting. After introducing the industrial problem, we present the mold thermal model and related assumptions. Then, we formulate the boundary heat flux estimation problem in a deterministic inverse problem setting using a sequential approach according to the sequentiality of the temperature measurements. We consider different formulations of the inverse problem. For each one, we develop novel direct methodologies exploiting a space parameterization of the heat flux and the linearity of the mold model. We construct these methods to be divided into a computationally expensive offline phase that can be computed before the process starts, and a cheaper online phase to be performed during the casting process. To conclude, we test the performance of the proposed methods in two benchmark cases

In the present study, we have performed a series of numerical simulations of the turbulent liquid metal flow in a laboratory-scale setup of the continuous casting. The liquid metal flow was subjected to an external non-uniform magnetic field reproducing a realistic electromagnetic brake (EMBr) effect. The focus of this research was on the effects of the finite electrical conductivity of Hartmann walls on the flow and turbulence in the mold. To be able to simulate distributions of the electric potential and current in both the fluid and solid wall domains, we applied our recently developed and validated in-house conjugate MHD solver based on the open-source code OpenFOAM. The dynamic Large Eddy Simulation (LES) method was used to simulate the turbulent flow. The results obtained for the neutral (non-MHD) and MHD cases over a range of the imposed EMBr strengths – all for the perfectly electrically insulated walls – were compared with the available Ultrasound Doppler Velocimetry (UDV) measurements. A good agreement between simulations and experiments was obtained for all simulated cases. Next, we completed a series of simulations including a wide range of the finite electric conductivities (ranging from a weakly to perfectly conducting wall conditions) of the Hartmann walls for a fixed value of the imposed EMBr. The obtained results demonstrated a significant influence of the electric wall conductivities on the flow and turbulence reorganization. It is expected that here provided insights can be applicable for the new generation of the laboratory- and real-scale continuous casting setups., ChemE/Transport Phenomena

More than 96% of steel in the world is produced via the method of continuous casting. The flow condition in the mould, where the initial solidification occurs, has a significant impact on the quality of steel products. It is important to have timely, and perhaps automated, control of the flow during casting. This work presents a new concept of using contactless inductive flow tomography (CIFT) as a sensor for a novel controller, which alters the strength of an electromagnetic brake (EMBr) of ruler type based on the reconstructed flow structure in the mould. The method was developed for the small-scale Liquid Metal Model for Continuous Casting (mini-LIMMCAST) facility available at the Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf. As an example of an undesired flow condition, clogging of the submerged entry nozzle (SEN) was modelled by partly closing one of the side ports of the SEN; in combination with an active EMBr, the jet penetrates deeper into the mould than when the EMBr is switched off. Corresponding flow patterns are detected by extracting the impingement position of the jets at the narrow faces of the mould from the CIFT reconstruction. The controller is designed to detect to undesired flow condition and switch off the EMBr. The temporal resolution of CIFT is 0.5 s., ChemE/Transport Phenomena

In this work, we revisit a recent transient three-dimensional (3D) model for longitudinal electromagnetic stirring in the continuous casting of rectangular steel blooms. Whereas the earlier work was able to demonstrate accurate approximations to the solutions in two asymptotic limits, both of which gave economical alternatives to time-consuming 3D computations, here we show that the original governing equations can be manipulated to a form that allows for rapid computation even outside of these asymptotic limits. The resulting formulation requires the numerical solution of two steady-state complex Helmholtz-like equations in two dimensions that are coupled via a non-standard internal interface condition that is reminiscent of that occurring in the study of Marangoni convection; these equations are then solved numerically using the finite-element software Comsol Multiphysics. With this formulation, it is possible to compute the time-averaged Lorentz force components in a way that requires around four orders of magnitude less computational time than the fully 3D approach., QC 20220810

Casting is a vital process in steel production where solidification process of molten steel occurs in mold coupled with fluid flow, heat transfer, crystal growth, inclusion motion, solute redistribution, segregation, and so on. All these phenomena are closely related to the steel flow behavior. To optimize the flow field in mold at initial moment, the swirling flow casting technology is developed and has received extensive attention in past years. It is believed to be a promising method to further optimize the steel flow and to improve the solidification process. Herein, the swirling flow steel casting is comprehensively reviewed to introduce different realization technologies, new research progress, and the current situation of their application. This aims to promote the development and usage of swirling flow technology in steel casting., QC 20220516

Stopper controls see considerable use in Continuous Casting (CC) throughput control. The flow regulation results in a narrow gap between the stopper and the SEN throat which can result in considerable under-pressures. Large pressure gradients across the refractory material lead to air infiltration through joints and porous refractory material which result in oxidation and corresponding issues such as inclusions, clogging, with adverse effect on product quality. Improving the CC process makes it necessary to understand how the pressure evolves in the continuous caster. Swerim and SSAB investigated the pressure in the argon line of a ceramic stopper for different casting conditions in a liquid metal continuous casting simulator. The results showed a narrow operational region for positive pressures in stopper and an occurrence of considerably low pressures at levels down to -741 mbar relative pressure. At these under-pressures the risk for air infiltration, and thus product issues, is considerable., Part of proceedings ISBN 978-093076713-6QC 20230724

This manuscript describes the methodology to optimise casting practices using SWERIM's digital twins. The process starts by compiling process data such as machine layout, steel grade and slag compositions to build a Library with detailed models of slag/steel properties, mould oscillation, product withdrawal, Electro-magnetic stirring, etc. Then, A 3D virtual geometry is constructed including the mould, SEN and 1-1.5 m length of slab/billet after the mould exit. These geometries are imported into Ansys-Fluent® v16.0 to solve for flow, heat transfer and solidification in a parallel cluster. Two reference cases for slab/billet casters are modelled showing an excellent agreement to map existing practices based on validation with flow measurements, solidification frames and temperatures in the casters. Subsequently, a matrix of parametric study cases is setup based on possible operational windows discussed with partners. The results of this analysis are imported into statistical analysis software to generate a set of guidelines to optimize process parameters such as shell thickness, temperature, etc. This allows finding “Sweet spots” to enhance the operating range of the casters and improve the quality of the final products., Part of ISBN 9780930767136QC 20230801

The development of closed control loops for electromagnetic actuators in continuous casting based on the current flow conditions of the liquid steel in the mold is challenging due to the opaqueness and the high temperature of the melt. In this work we will investigate the applicability of Contactless Inductive Flow Tomography (CIFT) as a real-time measurement technique for controlling the strength of a ruler type Electromagnetic Brake (EMBr) in a model of a continuous caster. Because CIFT relies on the measurement of the small flow induced perturbation of an applied magnetic field, the measurement system is very sensitive to changes of the strength the EMBr. We will shortly delineate the developed compensation method that is able to cope with the non-linearity of the ferromagnetic yoke of the brake. In combination with the real-time reconstruction algorithm for solving the linear inverse problem, CIFT is able to visualize the flow structure in the mold in real-time with a time resolution of 1 Hz. As a proof of concept of a closed control loop, we implemented a simple controller which switches the EMBr off, when the impingement positions of the jets at the narrow faces are below a critical threshold. The implemented controller and the experiment will be described in detail.

Flow control of liquid metals based on the actual flow condition is important in many metallurgical applications. For instance, the liquid steel flow in the mould of a continuous caster strongly influences the product quality. The flow can be modified by an electromagnetic brake (EMBr). However, due to the lack of appropriate flow measurement techniques, the control of those actuators is usually not based on the actual flow condition. This paper describes the recent developments of the Contactless Inductive Flow Tomography (CIFT) towards a real-time monitoring system, which can be used as an input to the control loop for an EMBr. CIFT relies on measuring the flow-induced perturbation of an applied magnetic field and the solution of an underlying linear inverse problem. In order to implement the CIFT reconstructions in combination with EMBr, two issues have to be solved: (i) compensation of the effects of the change in EMBr strength on the CIFT measurement system and (ii) real-time solution of the inverse problem. We present solutions of both problems for a model of a continuous caster with a ruler-type EMBr. The EMBr introduces offsets of the measured magnetic field that are several orders of magnitude larger than the very flow-induced perturbations. The offset stems from the ferromagnetic hysteresis exhibited by the ferrous parts of the EMBr in the proximity of the measurement coils. Compensation of the offset was successfully achieved by implementing a numerical model of hysteresis to predict the offset. Real-time reconstruction was achieved by precalculating the computationaly-heavy matrix inverses for a predefined set of regularization parameters and choosing the optimal every measurement frame. Finally, we show that this approach does not hinder the reconstruction quality.

Lack of appropriate flow measurement techniques for liquid steel during continuous casting limits the application of control strategies that could improve the quality of the end product. Contactless Inductive Flow Tomography (CIFT) is a promising measurement technique that can provide information about the flow structure in the mould to a real time controller. On this basis, electromagnetic actuators can be used to react on undesired flow conditions in the mould. However, because of their nature, these actuators pose a significant challenge for inductive measurement methods. In this work we describe the influence of an electromagnetic brake on CIFT in a laboratory environment. We also show how this influence can be fully compensated, which facilitates the viability of CIFT as a key ingredient of real time control of continuous casting.

More than 96% of steel in the world is produced via the method of continuous casting. The flow condition in the mould, where the initial solidification occurs, has a significant impact on the quality of steel products. It is important to have timely, and perhaps automated, control of the flow during casting. This work presents a new concept of using contactless inductive flow tomography (CIFT) as a sensor for a novel controller, which alters the strength of an electromagnetic brake (EMBr) of ruler type based on the reconstructed flow structure in the mould. The method was developed for the small-scale Liquid Metal Model for Continuous Casting (mini-LIMMCAST) facility available at the Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf. As an example of an undesired flow condition, clogging of the submerged entry nozzle (SEN) was modelled by partly closing one of the side ports of the SEN; in combination with an active EMBr, the jet penetrates deeper into the mould than when the EMBr is switched off. Corresponding flow patterns are detected by extracting the impingement position of the jets at the narrow faces of the mould from the CIFT reconstruction. The controller is designed to detect to undesired flow condition and switch off the EMBr. The temporal resolution of CIFT is 0.5 s.

In the present study, we have performed a series of numerical simulations of the turbulent liquid metal flow in a laboratory-scale setup of the continuous casting. The liquid metal flow was subjected to an external non-uniform magnetic field reproducing a realistic electromagnetic brake (EMBr) effect. The focus of this research was on the effects of the finite electrical conductivity of Hartmann walls on the flow and turbulence in the mold. To be able to simulate distributions of the electric potential and current in both the fluid and solid wall domains, we applied our recently developed and validated in-house conjugate MHD solver based on the open-source code OpenFOAM. The dynamic Large Eddy Simulation (LES) method was used to simulate the turbulent flow. The results obtained for the neutral (non-MHD) and MHD cases over a range of the imposed EMBr strengths – all for the perfectly electrically insulated walls – were compared with the available Ultrasound Doppler Velocimetry (UDV) measurements. A good agreement between simulations and experiments was obtained for all simulated cases. Next, we completed a series of simulations including a wide range of the finite electric conductivities (ranging from a weakly to perfectly conducting wall conditions) of the Hartmann walls for a fixed value of the imposed EMBr. The obtained results demonstrated a significant influence of the electric wall conductivities on the flow and turbulence reorganization. It is expected that here provided insights can be applicable for the new generation of the laboratory- and real-scale continuous casting setups.

In continuous casting machineries, monitoring the mold is essential for the safety and quality of the process. Then, the objective of this thesis is to develop mathematical tools for the real-time estimation of the mold-steel heat flux which is the quantity of interest when controlling the mold behaviour. We approach this problem by first considering the mold modelling problem (direct problem). Then, we plant the heat flux estimation problem as the inverse problem of estimating a Neumann boundary condition having as data pointwise temperature measurements in the interior of the mold domain given by the thermocouples that are buried inside the mold plates. In formulating the inverse problem, we consider both the steady and unsteady-state case. For the numerical solution of these problems, we develop several methodologies. We consider traditional methods such as Alifanov's regularization as well as novel methodologies that exploit the parametrization of the sought heat flux. We develop the latter methods to have an offline-online decomposition with a computationally efficient online part. Moreover, in the unsteady-state case, we propose a novel, incremental, data-driven model order reduction technique to achieve the real-time performance of the online phase. Finally, we test all discussed methods on academic and industrial benchmark cases. The results show that the proposed novel numerical tools outclass traditional methods both in performance and computational cost. Moreover, they prove to be robust with respect to the measurements noise and confirm that the computational cost is suitable for real-time estimation of the heat flux.

The purpose of my research is mainly focused on the Properties of CaO-Al2O3-based Mould Flux for High-Al Steel Continuous Casting. Mould flux is crucial to the continuous casting process for lubricating the strand as well as controlling the heat transfer between the mould and the steel strand. To reduce vehicle weight and obtain superior mechanical properties, a large amount of aluminium has been added to the steel. However, aluminium tends to react with silica-based mould flux during continuous casting, which could lead to a variety of casting problems, such as breakout prediction alarms, transverse and longitudinal depressions, etc. Therefore, it is crucial to limit the reaction between Al in the steel and SiO2 in the mould flux. This project aims to develop CaO-Al2O3-based mould fluxes for the continuous casting of the high-Al steel. The project will study melting properties, viscosity, structure, crystallisation behaviour and heat transfer of CaO-Al2O3-based mould fluxes to provide some strategy for the design of mould fluxes for the continuous casting of high-Al steel.

The work substantiates the relevance of the creation and problem of improving the quality of high-performance continuous bimetal production. The production of steel overlay clad strips on a combined continuous casting and strain unit takes place in two process stages. The article provides recommendations for a high-quality technological process. The recommendations include a problem statement, initial data for the temperature of the steel base strip, stress-strain state of the cladding layers and the strip in the strain zone of the three-layer bimetal ingot. A calculation model and a method for solving problems of thermal conductivity and elastoplasticity are presented. A pattern of the temperature change of the main strip during its passage through the melt of the cladding layer is established, a stress-strain state of the metals of the main strip and the cladding layers in the strain zone is determined. The authors determine the value of the main strip drafting and the mutual displacement of the layers during the reduction of the bimetal ingot by the dies, as well as the patterns of the axial and tangential stress distribution along the contact line between the cladding layer and the die. The results of obtaining bimetal steel 09G2S–steel 13KhFA–steel 09G2S on a pilot continuous casting and strain plant demonstrate the layer interconnection without visible macrodefects, delamination in the contact zone and a homogeneous and fine-grained structure of the cladding layers. © 2021, Allerton Press, Inc.

The problem statement and boundary conditions for calculation of axial thermoelastic stresses in backups with unit collars of combined continuous casting and deformation are provided for production of three steel billets. The calculation scheme for determination of thermoelastic stresses in backups with collars in a known temperature field was stated using ANSYS software. The calculation results of thermoelastic stresses in shaped dies were performed in four sections of a backup with collars. In each section, calculation results are given for four typical lines and seven points. Values of axial thermoelastic stresses for seven typical points of each section are given for the contact surface of a backup with collars and the contact layer at a depth of 5 mm from the contact surface. The stress state of a shaped backup in the middle of depression between the middle collars was determined and the distribution regularities of axial and equivalent stresses over the thickness, length and width of a backup were established during slab compression and at idle. The calculation results of thermoelastic stresses in the top of the middle collar of a shaped backup on the contact surface and in the contact layer during slab compression and at idle are presented. Graphs of thermoelastic stress distribution along the line passing through the top of a collar are given, which show the zones of compressive and tensile thermoelastic stresses during slab compression and at idle. The character of the stress state in the base of extreme collar was determined for production of three steel billets in the unit of combined process of continuous casting and deformation. © 2021, Allerton Press, Inc.

Continuous casting of steel in an industrial billet caster is modeled numerically including multiphase turbulent flow, mold electromagnetic stirring (M-EMS), heat transfer, and solidification. Two different steel grades (case-hardening and micro-alloyed steel) and casting powders are considered in the study to evaluate the castability and powder performance. Existing models to estimate thermophysical properties of casting powders are reviewed and compared to measurement data. Complex mold taper design is considered by constructing a digital twin and applying a corresponding velocity for the solidified shell in 3D. Slag infiltration is simulated from the beginning of casting to steady operation as a function of shell solidification and resulting heat transfer between liquid steel and oscillating mold wall. Additionally, the model predicts air gap size, excessive taper, and mold friction through a quasi-thermomechanical analysis. This includes a new approach to estimate mold friction based on Lubrication Index (LI) and Contact Index (CI) concepts. The resulting shell thickness, cooling water temperature, nail-dipping measurement, and mold friction are compared to plant data and literature for validation. This novel modeling approach can address phenomena difficult to analyze on real casters such as slag entrainment and infiltration, corresponding thermal response, and contact conditions between shell, slag, and mold., QC 20220318

A recent three-dimensional (3D) model that revisited earlier theoretical work for longitudinal electromagnetic stirring in the continuous casting of steel blooms is analyzed further to explore how the bloom width interacts with the pole pitch of the stirrer to affect the magnetic flux density. Whereas the first work indicated the presence of a boundary layer in the steel near the interface with the stirrer, with all three components of the magnetic flux density vector being coupled to each other, in the analysis presented here we find that the component along the direction of the travelling wave decouples from those in the other two directions and can even be determined analytically in the form of a series solution. Moreover, it is found that the remaining two components can be found via a two-dimensional computation, but that it is not possible in general to determine these components without taking into account the surrounding air. The validity of the asymptotically reduced model solution is confirmed by comparing it with the results of 3D numerical computations. Moreover, the asymptotic approach provides a way to compute the time-averaged Lorentz force components that requires two orders of magnitude less computational time than the fully 3D approach., QC 20210608

A holistic approach to diagnose the occurrence of cracking on HSLA steel slabs and propose counter-measures to prevent them is presented. The approach consisted on plant monitoring, including direct temperature measurements in the strand with pyrometers. Extensive characterization was performed via thermo-mechanical tests and microscopy techniques which revealed combination of Widmanstatten ferrite, acicular ferrite and secondary phases that promote embrittlement during casting with a minimum ductility between 700 degrees C-800 degrees C (+/- 50 degrees C) which is responsible for cracking in this steel. Finally, 1D and 3D numerical models were developed to test possible cooling strategies which proved that reductions in water flowrate can have a positive effect in slab quality by avoiding the low ductility zone. Corrective actions included decreasing cooling to increase the overall temperature of the strand before the straightener to increase the overall temperature. Yet, some slabs still observed the presence of cracks which points at secondary factors such as high tundish temperatures > 1 530 degrees C producing cracking. Other secondary factors include strong temperature variations up to +/- 250 degrees C during measurements which would send the strand corners into the low ductility range producing cracking despite having a hot slab centre. Although these optimization strategies are particular to each caster and steel grade, a similar approach could be applied to address secondary cooling issues during continuous casting. The models presented are an ideal toolkit to analyse the influence of product size and operation parameters in combination with plant monitoring and extensive microstructure characterization to improve the quality and productivity of the process., QC 20210503

Continuous casting (CC) is one of the most important processes of steel production; it features a high production rate and close to the net shape. The quality improvement of final CC products is an important goal of scientific research. One of the defining issues of this goal is the stability of the casting process. The clogging of submerged entry nozzles (SENs) typically results in asymmetric mold flow, uneven solidification, meniscus fluctuations, and possible slag entrapment. Analyses of retained SENs have evidenced the solidification of entrapped melt inside clog material. The experimental study of these phenomena has significant difficulties that make numerical simulation a perfect investigation tool. In the present study, verified 2D simulations were performed with an advanced multi-material model based on a newly presented single mesh approach for the liquid and solid regions. Implemented as an in-house code using the OpenFOAM finite volume method libraries, it aggregated the liquid melt flow, solidification of the steel, and heat transfer through the refractory SENs, copper mold plates, and the slag layer, including its convection. The introduced novel technique dynamically couples the momentum at the steel/slag interface without complex multi-phase interface tracking. The following scenarios were studied: (i) SEN with proper fiber insulation, (ii) partial damage of SEN insulation, and (iii) complete damage of SEN insulation. A uniform 12 mm clog layer with 45% entrapped liquid steel was additionally considered. The simulations showed that parasitic solidification occurred inside an SEN bore with partially or completely absent insulation. SEN clogging was found to promote the solidification of the entrapped melt; without SEN insulation, it could overgrow the clogged region. The jet flow was shown to be accelerated due to the combined effect of the clogging and parasitic solidification; simultaneously, the superheat transport was impaired inside the mold cavi

Continuous casting (CC) is one of the most important processes of steel production; it features a high production rate and close to the net shape. The quality improvement of final CC products is an important goal of scientific research. One of the defining issues of this goal is the stability of the casting process. The clogging of submerged entry nozzles (SENs) typically results in asymmetric mold flow, uneven solidification, meniscus fluctuations, and possible slag entrapment. Analyses of retained SENs have evidenced the solidification of entrapped melt inside clog material. The experimental study of these phenomena has significant difficulties that make numerical simulation a perfect investigation tool. In the present study, verified 2D simulations were performed with an advanced multi-material model based on a newly presented single mesh approach for the liquid and solid regions. Implemented as an in-house code using the OpenFOAM finite volume method libraries, it aggregated the liquid melt flow, solidification of the steel, and heat transfer through the refractory SENs, copper mold plates, and the slag layer, including its convection. The introduced novel technique dynamically couples the momentum at the steel/slag interface without complex multi-phase interface tracking. The following scenarios were studied: (i) SEN with proper fiber insulation, (ii) partial damage of SEN insulation, and (iii) complete damage of SEN insulation. A uniform 12 mm clog layer with 45% entrapped liquid steel was additionally considered. The simulations showed that parasitic solidification occurred inside an SEN bore with partially or completely absent insulation. SEN clogging was found to promote the solidification of the entrapped melt; without SEN insulation, it could overgrow the clogged region. The jet flow was shown to be accelerated due to the combined effect of the clogging and parasitic solidification; simultaneously, the superheat transport was impaired inside the mold cavi

The paper presents the comparison of optimization-regulation algorithms applied to secondary cooling zone in continuous steel casting where the semi-product withdraws most of its thermal energy. In steel production, requirements towards obtaining defect-free semi-products are in-creasing day by day and the products, which would satisfy requirements of the consumers a few decades ago, are now far below the minimum required quality. To fulfill the quality demands towards minimum occurrence of defects in secondary cooling as possible, some regulation in the casting process is needed. The main concept of this paper is to analyze and compare the most known metaheuristic optimization approaches applied to the continuous steel casting process. Heat transfer and solidification phenomena are solved by using a fast 2.5D slice numerical model. The objective function is set to minimize the surface temperature differences in secondary cooling zones between calculated and targeted surface temperatures by suitable water flow rates through cooling nozzles. Obtained optimization results are discussed and the most suitable algorithm for this type of optimization problem is identified. Temperature deviations and cooling water flow rates in secondary cooling zone together with convergence rate and operation times needed to reach the stop criterium for each optimization approach are analysed and compared to target casting conditions based on a required temperature distribution of the strand. The paper also contains a brief description of applied heuristic algorithms. Some of the algorithms exhibited faster convergence rate than others, but the optimal solution was reached in every optimization run by only one algorithm.

To achieve an optimal flow pattern in the mould of a continuous caster, it is desirable to use a tailored control of the flow using electromagnetic actuators (e.g. electromagnetic brakes or stirrers) based on the current flow condition in the mould. However, the rough environment provides a challenge. Contactless Inductive Flow Tomography (CIFT) is a technique that can provide information about the flow structure by visualizing the full velocity field in the mould. In order to reconstruct the flow, the perturbation of an applied magnetic field by the flow is measured. It is obvious that every change of the strength of the magnetic field of an electromagnetic brake influences the measured values. In this paper we cover the challenges of measuring the flow induced magnetic field in the range of nT in the presence of varying magnetic field of the electromagnetic actuators in the range of 100 mT.

Continuous casting is the primary means of production of steel semi-products. It is of paramount importance to keep the quality of the produced stock constantly at a high level to meet the tight margins of the steel industry. Flow conditions in the mould, where the solidification process starts, significantly impact the quality of the end product. Unfortunately, the harsh industrial environment limits the applicable measurement methods to detect any undesired flow conditions, thus limiting the viable control strategies.Contactless Inductive Flow Tomography (CIFT) was previously proposed to identify flow features in the mould of a continuous caster. While the Electromagnetic Brake (EMBr) is a common way to influence the flow, it has a disturbing influence on CIFT measurements which, however, can be compensated. In this work, we introduce the experimental setup, measurement technique, and discuss the control strategy derived from the CIFT flow reconstruction.

The quality of steel produced by a continuous caster depends on the flow condition during initial solidification in the mould. While the understanding of the flow and its effects is highly desirable, high temperature, opaqueness of the liquid steel and harsh conditions during the production limit viable measurement methods. Contactless Inductive Flow Tomography (CIFT) can provide information about the dominant flow structure in the mould in real time. This information can be used in a control loop for the Electromagnetic Brake (EMBr). Due to the inductive nature of CIFT, every change of the magnetic field strength of the EMBr has a strong influence on the measurements. Changing the strength of the EMBr alters the magnetization vector in its ferromagnetic yoke, which, in turn, generates a signal up to a thousand times higher than the flow induced magnetic field. In this paper, we present a way to compensate these effects of EMBr on CIFT by filling a database containing compensation values. We will also present the preliminary results of a controller that utilizes CIFT and EMBr to actively control the flow in the mould during casting. The experiments are conducted on the Mini-LIMMCAST facility, a laboratory model of the mould of a continuous caster with the rectangular cross-section of 300 × 30 mm2. It is operated with the eutectic ally GaInSn.

Lack of appropriate flow measurement techniques for liquid steel during continuous casting limits the application of control strategies that could improve the quality of the end product. Contactless Inductive Flow Tomography (CIFT) is a promising measurement technique that can provide information about the flow structure in the mould to a real time controller. On this basis, electromagnetic actuators can be used to react on undesired flow conditions in the mould. However, because of their nature, these actuators pose a significant challenge for inductive measurement methods. In this work we describe the influence of an electromagnetic brake on CIFT in a laboratory environment. We also show how this influence can be fully compensated, which facilitates the viability of CIFT as a key ingredient of real time control of continuous casting.

Continuous casting (CC) is one of the most important processes of steel production; it features a high production rate and close to the net shape. The quality improvement of final CC products is an important goal of scientific research. One of the defining issues of this goal is the stability of the casting process. The clogging of submerged entry nozzles (SENs) typically results in asymmetric mold flow, uneven solidification, meniscus fluctuations, and possible slag entrapment. Analyses of retained SENs have evidenced the solidification of entrapped melt inside clog material. The experimental study of these phenomena has significant difficulties that make numerical simulation a perfect investigation tool. In the present study, verified 2D simulations were performed with an advanced multi-material model based on a newly presented single mesh approach for the liquid and solid regions. Implemented as an in-house code using the OpenFOAM finite volume method libraries, it aggregated the liquid melt flow, solidification of the steel, and heat transfer through the refractory SENs, copper mold plates, and the slag layer, including its convection. The introduced novel technique dynamically couples the momentum at the steel/slag interface without complex multi-phase interface tracking. The following scenarios were studied: (i) SEN with proper fiber insulation, (ii) partial damage of SEN insulation, and (iii) complete damage of SEN insulation. A uniform 12 mm clog layer with 45% entrapped liquid steel was additionally considered. The simulations showed that parasitic solidification occurred inside an SEN bore with partially or completely absent insulation. SEN clogging was found to promote the solidification of the entrapped melt; without SEN insulation, it could overgrow the clogged region. The jet flow was shown to be accelerated due to the combined effect of the clogging and parasitic solidification; simultaneously, the superheat transport was impaired inside the mold cavi

The paper presents the comparison of optimization-regulation algorithms applied to secondary cooling zone in continuous steel casting where the semi-product withdraws most of its thermal energy. In steel production, requirements towards obtaining defect-free semi-products are in-creasing day by day and the products, which would satisfy requirements of the consumers a few decades ago, are now far below the minimum required quality. To fulfill the quality demands towards minimum occurrence of defects in secondary cooling as possible, some regulation in the casting process is needed. The main concept of this paper is to analyze and compare the most known metaheuristic optimization approaches applied to the continuous steel casting process. Heat transfer and solidification phenomena are solved by using a fast 2.5D slice numerical model. The objective function is set to minimize the surface temperature differences in secondary cooling zones between calculated and targeted surface temperatures by suitable water flow rates through cooling nozzles. Obtained optimization results are discussed and the most suitable algorithm for this type of optimization problem is identified. Temperature deviations and cooling water flow rates in secondary cooling zone together with convergence rate and operation times needed to reach the stop criterium for each optimization approach are analysed and compared to target casting conditions based on a required temperature distribution of the strand. The paper also contains a brief description of applied heuristic algorithms. Some of the algorithms exhibited faster convergence rate than others, but the optimal solution was reached in every optimization run by only one algorithm.

A numerical study is presented that deals with the flow in the mold of a continuous slab caster under the influence of a DC magnetic field (electromagnetic brakes (EMBrs)). The arrangement and geometry investigated here is based on a series of previous experimental studies carried out at the mini-LIMMCAST facility at the Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR). The magnetic field models a ruler-type EMBr and is installed in the region of the ports of the submerged entry nozzle (SEN). The current article considers magnet field strengths up to 441 mT, corresponding to a Hartmann number of about 600, and takes the electrical conductivity of the solidified shell into account. The numerical model of the turbulent flow under the applied magnetic field is implemented using the open-source CFD package OpenFOAM. Our numerical results reveal that a growing magnitude of the applied magnetic field may cause a reversal of the flow direction at the meniscus surface, which is related the formation of a ‘‘multiroll’’ flow pattern in the mold. This phenomenon can be explained as a classical magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) effect: (1) the closure of the induced electric current results not primarily in a braking Lorentz force inside the jet but in an acceleration in regions of previously weak velocities, which initiates the formation of an opposite vortex (OV) close to the mean jet; (2) this vortex develops in size at the expense of the main vortex until it reaches the meniscus surface, where it becomes clearly visible. We also show that an acceleration of the meniscus flow must be expected when the applied magnetic field is smaller than a critical value. This acceleration is due to the transfer of kinetic energy from smaller turbulent structures into the mean flow. A further increase in the EMBr intensity leads to the expected damping of the mean flow and, consequently, to a reduction in the size of the upper roll. These investigations show that the Lorentz force cannot be reduced to

In the present work, we consider the industrial problem of estimating in real-time the mold-steel heat flux in continuous casting mold. We approach this problem by first considering the mold modeling problem (direct problem). Then, we plant the heat flux estimation problem as the inverse problem of estimating a Neumann boundary condition having as data pointwise temperature measurements in the interior of the mold domain. We also consider the case of having a total heat flux measurement together with the temperature measurements. We develop two methodologies for solving this inverse problem. The first one is the traditional Alifanov's regularization, the second one exploits the parameterization of the heat flux. We develop the latter method to have an offline–online decomposition with a computationally efficient online part to be performed in real-time. In the last part of this work, we test these methods on academic and industrial benchmarks. The results show that the parameterization method outclasses Alifanov's regularization both in performance and computational cost. Moreover, it proves to be robust with respect to the measurements noise. Finally, the tests confirm that the computational cost is suitable for real-time estimation of the heat flux

Mould powder is essential for the reliable operation of the continuous casting system and the quality of the cast steel. The very responsible roles of mould powder are fulfilled by selecting combinations of components that affect physicochemical properties of the resulting liquid slag, which lubricate the walls among the crystallizer and slab. The contribution of mould powder refers to the range of melting temperature and speed and the viscosity of glassy or crystalline slag and formation temperature. These connections are the research subject in this paper, emphasizing the functional dependence of viscosity and liquidus temperature of mould powder with its material composition. This research investigates the impact of basicity, alkali oxides (Na2O and K2O), and carbon-free content on viscosity and liquidus temperature of mould powder in the continuous casting process. The liquidus temperature of mould powder was obtained empirically after a year of experimental examination, and viscosity was determined using several models. Based on experimental investigation, we show empirical parameters for equitation of liquidus temperature of mould powder. Also, using established equations, we presented isolines for viscosity and liquidus temperature with experimental parameters.

Quality prediction in the continuous casting process is of great significance to the quality improvement of casting slabs. Due to the uncertainty and nonlinear relationship between the quality of continuous casting slabs (CCSs) and various factors, reliable prediction of CCS quality poses a challenge to the steel industry. However, traditional prediction models based on domain knowledge and expertise are difficult to adapt to the changes in multiple operating conditions and raw materials from various enterprises. To meet the challenge, we propose a framework with a multiscale convolutional and recurrent neural network (MCRNN) for reliable CCS quality prediction. The proposed framework outperforms conventional time series classification methods with better feature representation since the input is transformed at different scales and frequencies, which captures both long-term trends and short-term changes in time series. Moreover, we generate different category distributions based on the random undersampling (RUS) method to mitigate the impact of the skewed data distribution due to the natural imbalance of continuous casting data. The experimental results and comprehensive comparison with the state-of-the-art methods show the superiority of the proposed MCRNN framework, which has not only satisfactory prediction performance but also good potential to improve continuous casting process understanding and CCS quality. © 2020 by the authors. Li-censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.

The findings in this work enhance the understanding of oxidation mechanisms and scale growth at high temperatures of a high strength low alloy (HSLA) steel for improving surface quality during continuous casting. The oxidation phenomenon was investigated under dry air and water vapor atmospheres by heating specimens at 1000, 1100, and 1200 degrees C at different holding times. Temperature and time had great effects on the kinetics, where faster (i.e., parabolic) oxidation rates were present under water vapor when compared with the dry air condition. Temperature strongly influenced the number of defects, such as pores, voids, gaps and micro-cracks, formed in the oxide scale. A phase analysis confirmed the presence of FeO as the first phase formed at the steel surface, Fe(3)O(4)as the middle and thicker phase, and Fe(2)O(3)as the last phase formed in the oxide/air interface. The micromechanics of the oxides demonstrated that a combination of phases with high (wustite) and low plasticity (magnetite and hematite) could also have been the reason for the uneven cooling during Continuous Casting (CC) that resulted in the undesired surface quality of the steel slabs. This work gives a good look at the oxide scale effect on the surface quality of steel slabs through an understanding the kinetics during oxidation., QC 20201110

The present research addresses the effect of surface condition on oxide scale formation at high temperatures such as those experienced during secondary cooling in Continuous Casting. Tests were carried out in clean, as-cast and surfaces covered with casting powder to replicate the oxidation/re-oxidation after the mould. Specimens oxidized at 1000, 1100 and 1200 degrees C under dry air and water-vapour conditions revealed that the oxide scale formation is strongly influenced by temperature, environmental and surface conditions. The oxide scale thickness increases with temperature alterations in the surface (e.g., as-cast and covered with powder) where oxides and carbonates from the casting powder accelerate oxidation kinetics leading to thick and unstable scales. A high amount of carbon is present on surfaces covered with casting powder where it diffuses through the oxide scale forming CO and CO2 which lead to stress accumulation that makes scales prone to defects such as pores, voids and micro-cracks. Ultimately, if wustite remains attached to the steel surface or inside oscillation marks, it may disturb heat transfer during secondary cooling which has deep industrial implications for crack formation and overall casting yield. Therefore, accurate insights on scale type and growth mechanisms could lead to accurate control of its formation during casting., QC 20201110

This paper investigates the different possible behaviours of a recent asymptotic model for oscillation-mark formation in the continuous casting of steel, with particular focus on how the results obtained vary when the heat transfer coefficient (R-mf), the thermal resistance (mu(f)) and the dependence of the viscosity of the flux powder as a function of temperature, are changed. It turns out that three different outcomes are possible: (I) the flux remains in molten state and no solid flux ever forms; (II) both molten and solid flux are present, and the profile of the oscillation mark is continuous with respect to the space variable in the casting direction; (III) both molten and solid flux are present, and the profile of the oscillation mark is discontinuous with respect to the space variable in the casting direction. Although (I) gave good agreement with experimental data, it suffered the drawback that solid flux is typically observed during actual continuous casting; this has been rectified in this work via alternative (II). On the other hand, alternative (III) can occur as a result of hysteresis-type phenomenon that is encountered in other flows that involve temperature-dependent viscosity; in the present case, this manifests itself via the possibility of multiple states for the oscillation-mark profile at the instants in time when solid flux begins to form and when it ceases to form., QC 20200623

The ductility drop and decrease in strength that lead to crack formation during continuous casting of steel is typically investigated by means of the hot ductility test. In this study, hot ductility tests are performed by using a thereto-mechanical Gleeble system to simulate the deformation of steels at high temperatures and low deformation rates similar to those during continuous casting. Thus, temperature was varied between 600 and 1000 degrees C while strain rates covered a range from 0.001 to 0.1 s(-1). Tests are carried out to identify the temperature range at which the steel is susceptible to crack formation as well as the effect of strain rate. Characterization of fractured surfaces and phase transformation after thermo-mechanical tests are conducted in the SEM and Optical Microscope. The combination of these techniques makes possible to formulate cracking mechanisms during hot processing which show critical strain for failure at temperatures between 700 and 900 degrees C based on the convergence of three different criteria: I) Reduction of area, II) True fracture strength-ductility and III) True total energy. This approach provides a better understanding of crack formation in steels at the high temperatures experienced during continuous casting. This information is key to productivity losses and avoid defect formation in the final cast products., QC 20200218