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Super-Earths and mini-Neptunes exhibit great diversity in their compositional and orbital properties. Their bulk densities span a large range, from those dense enough to be purely rocky to those needing a substantial contribution from volatiles to their volumes. Their orbital configurations range from compact, circular multi-transiting systems like Kepler-11 to systems like our Solar System's terrestrial planets with wider spacings and modest but significant eccentricities and mutual inclinations. Here we investigate whether a continuum of formation conditions resulting from variation in the amount of solids available in the inner disk can account for the diversity of orbital and compositional properties observed for super Earths, including the apparent dichotomy between single transiting and multiple transiting system. We simulate in situ formation of super-Earths via giant impacts and compare to the observed Kepler sample. We find that intrinsic variations among disks in the amount of solids available for in situ formation can account for the orbital and compositional diversity observed among Kepler's transiting planets. Our simulations can account for the planets' distributions of orbital period ratios, transit duration ratios, and transit multiplicity; higher eccentricities for single than multi transiting planets; smaller eccentricities for larger planets; scatter in the mass-radius relation, including lower densities for planets with masses measured with TTVs than RVs; and similarity in planets' sizes and spacings within each system. Our findings support the theory that variation among super-Earth and mini-Neptune properties is primarily locked in by different in situ formation conditions, rather than arising stochastically through subsequent evolution., Comment: 18 pages, 9 figures. Submitted to ApJ; revised in response to referee report

Exoplanet systems with multiple planets in mean motion resonances have often been hailed as a signpost of disk driven migration. Resonant chains like Kepler-223 and Kepler-80 consist of a trio of planets with the three-body resonant angle librating and/or with a two-body resonant angle librating for each pair. Here we investigate whether close-in super-Earths and mini-Neptunes forming in situ can lock into resonant chains due to dissipation from a depleted gas disk. We simulate the giant impact phase of planet formation, including eccentricity damping from a gaseous disk, followed by subsequent dynamical evolution over tens of millions of years. In a fraction of simulated systems, we find that planets naturally lock into resonant chains. These planets achieve a chain of near-integer period ratios during the gas disk stage, experience eccentricity damping that captures them into resonance, stay in resonance as the gas disk dissipates, and avoid subsequent giant impacts, eccentricity excitation, and chaotic diffusion that would dislodge the planets from resonance. Disk conditions that enable planets to complete their formation during the gas disk stage enable those planets to achieve tight period ratios <= 2 and, if they happen to be near integer period ratios, lock into resonance. Using the weighting of different disk conditions deduced by MacDonald et al. (2020) and forward modeling Kepler selection effects, we find that our simulations of in situ formation via oligarchic growth lead to a rate of observable trios with integer period ratios and librating resonant angles comparable to observed Kepler systems., Comment: 13 pages, 3 tables, 9 figures, accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journal on October 5, 2020

Super-Earths and mini-Neptunes exhibit great diversity in their compositional and orbital properties. Their bulk densities span a large range, from those dense enough to be purely rocky to those needing a substantial contribution from volatiles to their volumes. Their orbital configurations range from compact, circular multi-transiting systems like Kepler-11 to systems like our Solar System's terrestrial planets with wider spacings and modest but significant eccentricities and mutual inclinations. Here we investigate whether a continuum of formation conditions resulting from variation in the amount of solids available in the inner disk can account for the diversity of orbital and compositional properties observed for super Earths, including the apparent dichotomy between single transiting and multiple transiting system. We simulate in situ formation of super-Earths via giant impacts and compare to the observed Kepler sample. We find that intrinsic variations among disks in the amount of solids available for in situ formation can account for the orbital and compositional diversity observed among Kepler's transiting planets. Our simulations can account for the planets' distributions of orbital period ratios, transit duration ratios, and transit multiplicity; higher eccentricities for single than multi transiting planets; smaller eccentricities for larger planets; scatter in the mass-radius relation, including lower densities for planets with masses measured with TTVs than RVs; and similarity in planets' sizes and spacings within each system. Our findings support the theory that variation among super-Earth and mini-Neptune properties is primarily locked in by different in situ formation conditions, rather than arising stochastically through subsequent evolution., Comment: 18 pages, 9 figures. Submitted to ApJ; revised in response to referee report

While many observed debris disks are thought to have gaps suggestive of the presence of planets, direct imaging surveys do not find many high mass planets in these systems. We investigate if divergent migration is a viable mechanism for forming gaps in young debris disks with planets of low enough mass to currently elude detection. We perform numerical integrations of planet pairs embedded in planetesimal disks to assess the conditions for which divergent, planetesimal-driven migration occurs and gaps form within the disk. Gap widths and the migration rate of planets within a pair depend on both disk mass and the degree to which the planets share disk material. We find that planet pairs with planets more massive than Neptune can produce gaps with widths similar to their orbit distance within 10 Myr at orbit separations probed by direct imaging campaigns. Pairs of migrating super-Earths likely cannot form observable gaps on the same time and distance scales, however. Inferring the responsible planet masses from these gaps while neglecting migration could overestimate the mass of planets by more than an order of magnitude., Comment: 10 pages, 1 table, 8 figures. Accepted for publication in MNRAS on 2018 September 25

While many observed debris disks are thought to have gaps suggestive of the presence of planets, direct imaging surveys do not find many high mass planets in these systems. We investigate if divergent migration is a viable mechanism for forming gaps in young debris disks with planets of low enough mass to currently elude detection. We perform numerical integrations of planet pairs embedded in planetesimal disks to assess the conditions for which divergent, planetesimal-driven migration occurs and gaps form within the disk. Gap widths and the migration rate of planets within a pair depend on both disk mass and the degree to which the planets share disk material. We find that planet pairs with planets more massive than Neptune can produce gaps with widths similar to their orbit distance within 10 Myr at orbit separations probed by direct imaging campaigns. Pairs of migrating super-Earths likely cannot form observable gaps on the same time and distance scales, however. Inferring the responsible planet masses from these gaps while neglecting migration could overestimate the mass of planets by more than an order of magnitude., Comment: 10 pages, 1 table, 8 figures. Accepted for publication in MNRAS on 2018 September 25

In the coming years, high contrast imaging surveys are expected to reveal the characteristics of the population of wide-orbit, massive, exoplanets. To date, a handful of wide planetary mass companions are known, but only one such multi-planet system has been discovered: HR8799. For low mass planetary systems, multi-planet interactions play an important role in setting system architecture. In this paper, we explore the stability of these high mass, multi-planet systems. While empirical relationships exist that predict how system stability scales with planet spacing at low masses, we show that extrapolating to super-Jupiter masses can lead to up to an order of magnitude overestimate of stability for massive, tightly packed systems. We show that at both low and high planet masses, overlapping mean motion resonances trigger chaotic orbital evolution, which leads to system instability. We attribute some of the difference in behavior as a function of mass to the increasing importance of second order resonances at high planet-star mass ratios. We use our tailored high mass planet results to estimate the maximum number of planets that might reside in double component debris disk systems, whose gaps may indicate the presence of massive bodies., Comment: Accepted to ApJ

In the coming years, high contrast imaging surveys are expected to reveal the characteristics of the population of wide-orbit, massive, exoplanets. To date, a handful of wide planetary mass companions are known, but only one such multi-planet system has been discovered: HR8799. For low mass planetary systems, multi-planet interactions play an important role in setting system architecture. In this paper, we explore the stability of these high mass, multi-planet systems. While empirical relationships exist that predict how system stability scales with planet spacing at low masses, we show that extrapolating to super-Jupiter masses can lead to up to an order of magnitude overestimate of stability for massive, tightly packed systems. We show that at both low and high planet masses, overlapping mean motion resonances trigger chaotic orbital evolution, which leads to system instability. We attribute some of the difference in behavior as a function of mass to the increasing importance of second order resonances at high planet-star mass ratios. We use our tailored high mass planet results to estimate the maximum number of planets that might reside in double component debris disk systems, whose gaps may indicate the presence of massive bodies., Comment: Accepted to ApJ