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This chapter first briefly introduces Eritrea’s linguistic diversity. The country has nine officially recognized languages, written in three different scripts and belonging to three different language families. Then it describes Eritrea’s consecutive language policies from Italian colonial rule, British Protectorate, and Ethiopian rule to the country’s hard-fought independence from Ethiopia in 1991, especially in the field of education. This overview is complemented with an account of how Eritrea’s current language policy is reflected in several societal domains. Then the chapter discusses some main language policy issues that emerge from Eritrea’s current language policies, including official vs multiple languages, dominant vs minority languages, and the status of Arabic. Finally, the chapter puts Eritrea’s language policies in a broader chronotopic context, arguing that approaches that have been effective at one point in time, might become less relevant later because people’s language practices and attitudes in real life do not necessarily coincide with official policy documents.

Translanguaging, the practice of alternating between different languages within the classroom, has emerged as a relevant pedagogical approach in multilingual settings. In the multilingual context of Mallorca, where both Catalan and Spanish are official languages, the use of translanguaging has become a significant area of interest in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms. This study aims to explore how English teachers employ translanguaging strategies and the predominant language used when translanguaging occurs. Through a questionnaire administered to 51 secondary school English teachers in Mallorca, data was collected and analyzed to identify patterns in translanguaging practices. The findings reveal that the vast majority employ pedagogical translanguaging strategies, and that the predominant language when translanguaging occurs tends to be Catalan, slightly ahead of Spanish. These results provide valuable insights into the integration of translanguaging in EFL classrooms and its implications for language teaching in multilingual settings.

This paper analyses interviews to explore translanguaging practices and views in Study Tutoring in the Mother Tongue (ST). ST is an internationally rare and under-researched support measure typically offered to newly arrived students in Swedish education. It is often referred to as ‘a space for translanguaging’ because in ST students meet a tutor proficient in their L1 to discuss subject matter using the L1 in alternation with L2 Swedish. ‘Translanguaging’ originally referred to a specific pedagogical strategy of language alternation but can now refer to either the framework of spontaneous translanguaging or that of pedagogical translanguaging. Spontaneous translanguaging is about encouraging in the classroom multilingual speech used in everyday communication. Pedagogical translanguaging, on the other hand, refers to various types of planned instructional strategies that alternate or compare languages to teach content and language more efficiently. This study indicates that, in ST, spontaneous and pedagogical translanguaging take place next to each other and cannot be seen as complete dichotomies. The tutors, however, view spontaneous translanguaging as a scaffolding means that should decrease over time. The tutors also use some crosslinguistic instructional strategies, but would benefit from receiving training so as to implement pedagogical translanguaging in a more planned and varied manner.

Study Tutoring in the Mother Tongue is a support measure in Swedish schools typically offered to newly arrived students. The space is often referred to as one for translanguaging because, during tutoring sessions, both study tutors and students alternate between using their native language (L1) and Swedish while discussing the subject matter. The few studies available describe study tutors as a critical ‘language and culture bridge’ for newly arrived students’. In this study, we interview ten study tutors from across Sweden to explore their perceptions of their professional role and practical work with newly arrived students. The results show that study tutors describe their work as an essential support measure for newly arrived students’ success and inclusion in school. Yet, the study tutors also highlight their work as having collaboration, time and resource constraints, and that they feel they lack the training to address these challenges. In response, the study tutors see their work as pragmatic, relying on their professional backgrounds and initiative to support their students, at times acting outside their official responsibilities. These findings show the underutilization of study tutors, the potential of which could be developed through their greater inclusion in school planning and formalized training.

This study explores the impact of multilingual education on promoting cultural diversity, sustainable peace, and mitigating social unrest. By examining the relationship between language, culture, and literacy, it was investigated that how multilingual education can foster acceptance and understanding among diverse communities. The research methodology used in this study was qualitative in nature. The self-developed research tool i.e the open ended interview guide was used. The fifteen interviews were conducted from the stake holders of educational experts and administrative officers of education and literacy departments of district Chiniot. The data was analysed through thematic analysis. The findings of study reflected that the multilingual education had important role in the development of sustainable peace in the society and mitigating the unrest among the people. The research also revealed that multilingual education programs can bridge cultural divides, promote inclusive learning environments, and enhance literacy skills, ultimately contributing to sustainable peace. It was recommended that the multilingual education should be made the part of curriculum so that it might be implemented at primary to tertiary level education.

‘Translanguaging’ is nowadays an umbrella term referring to either the framework of ‘spontaneous translanguaging’ from the United States or that of ‘pedagogical translanguaging’ from the Basque Country. Both these frameworks propose ways of integrating languages in school, but they adopt very different perspectives on multilingualism, language education and minority languages. This article starts out with a discussion of spontaneous and pedagogical translanguaging as related to their sociolinguistic and educational contexts and a discussion of multilingualism in Sweden. This is followed by a critical review of academic publications on translanguaging published by researchers affiliated to Swedish universities between 2017 – the year in which the distinction between spontaneous and pedagogical translanguaging is featured in the literature – and 2023. The analysis shows that whereas spontaneous translanguaging is highly influential, pedagogical translanguaging generally plays a very understated role. Linked to the current discourse about multilingualism in Sweden, most researchers discuss translanguaging in relation to the social inclusion of students with a foreign background, who are referred to as ‘the multilingual students’, rather than to teaching languages to the whole student population. A central goal of the Swedish educational system, however, is to promote all students' multilingualism by teaching multiple languages, including foreign languages as well as any official or immigrant minority language a student uses at home. We call, therefore, for more attention to pedagogical translanguaging and we claim the importance of adapting translanguaging to the challenges of each society.

En els últims quaranta anys, s’han obtingut molt bons resultats pel que fa a l’evolució en el percentatge de parlants d’èuscar entre les generacions joves, si s’observen les dades generals del procés de revitalització de l’èuscar entre l’alumnat de la Comunitat Autònoma Basca (CAB). No obstant això, l’increment en el coneixement del basc no s’ha traduït en un augment del seu ús i, encara més, en els resultats dels assoliments educatius de l’última dècada s’ha produït un descens innegable en indicadors com la competència en èuscar de l’alumnat. Utilitzant el mateix símil aplicat a la revitalització de l’èuscar, es podria dir que el model «D» o model d’immersió lingüística es troba en una cruïlla. D’acord amb això, en aquest treball s’ha volgut aprofundir en els aspectes positius de les actituds lingüístiques de membres de dues escoles amb molta diversitat de Vitòria-Gasteiz, en un context marcadament castellanoparlant. Els alumnes, els familiars, els professors i els educadors de lleure mostren una bona actitud, tant quantitativament com qualitativament, envers l’èuscar, el castellà i l’anglès, com també envers les altres llengües d’aquestes comunitats escolars. En conseqüència, tenint en compte l’evolució descendent de les dades generals de referència i el pessimisme de les últimes reivindicacions, i utilitzant la indagació apreciativa per a estudiar-ho, aquestes dues escoles han mostrat que, en contextos escolars en els quals hi ha diversitat, es poden construir actituds a favor de l’èuscar, encara que l’ús i la presència d’aquesta llengua siguin molt limitats. Malgrat que s’han identificat diversos reptes i elements que cal analitzar amb més profunditat, aquest article aporta evidències de suport a les comunitats educatives que busquen revitalitzar l’èuscar en contextos de diversitat., Over the last 40 years, very good results have been achieved in terms of the evolution of the percentage of Basque speakers amongst younger generations in the Basque Autonomous Region. However, the growth of the knowledge of Basque has not increased this language’s use and, even more unfortunately, in the educational achievement results of the last decade, there has been an undeniable decline in such indicators as Basque language competence. Using the same simile applied to the revitalisation of Basque, it may be said that the “D” or linguistic immersion model stands at a crossroads. Accordingly, in this study we aim to identify positive aspects of the linguistic attitudes of people from two schools of Vitoria-Gasteiz which are set in a markedly Spanish-speaking context. Students, family members, teachers and leisure educators show good attitudes, both quantitatively and qualitatively, towards Basque, Spanish and English, as well as other languages in these school communities. Consequently, faced with the downward evolution of the general data and the pessimism of the latest claims, and using appreciative inquiry to guide this study, these two schools have shown that, in school contexts where diversity exists, attitudes can indeed be built in favor of Basque, even if the use and presence of this language is very limited. Although certain challenges and elements to be analysed in greater depth have been identified, this article provides supporting evidence to educational communities seeking to revitalise Basque in contexts of diversity.

Aquesta recerca se centra en l’anàlisi qualitativa dels relats de vida de diferents persones en relació amb l’ensenyament de llengües, mitjançant entrevistes semiestructurades realitzades entre els mesos de febrer i març de 2021. L’objectiu de la recerca és determinar els efectes de l’educació en els subjectes bilingües (ús de les llengües, prejudicis, etc.) i la seua valoració sobre l’educació plurilingüe (metodologia, dificultats, etc.). Per a fer-ho, s’ha seguit un disseny polifònic per tal de garantir que les persones entrevistades donen compte d’un rang ampli d’experiències individuals sobre el tema objecte d’estudi, tot i que la mostra (n = 44) no pretén ser representativa del conjunt de la societat valenciana. A partir dels coneixements, les experiències, els comportaments i les creences sobre les llengües de les persones entrevistades emergeixen propostes de bones pràctiques, metodologies i estratègies per a la millora de l’aprenentatge del català. Els resultats obtinguts posen de manifest la difícil situació sociolingüística de la llengua catalana, així com la necessitat de garantir una educació plurilingüe adequada. El coneixement de la llengua, generalitzat a partir de l’escolarització en valencià dels joves entrevistats, no és suficient i convindria treballar les actituds lingüístiques en l’ensenyament i l’assertivitat lingüística dels parlants de llengua minoritzada., This research focuses on the qualitative analysis of a series of life stories of different people in relation to language learning, based on semi-structured interviews carried out between February and March 2021. The aim of this research is to determine the effects of education on bilingual subjects (use of languages, prejudices, etc.) and these subjects’ assessment of their multilingual education (methodology, difficulties, etc.). In order to do this, a polyphonic design was applied with a view to ensuring that the people interviewed reflected a wide range of individual experiences on the subject under study, even though the sample (n = 44) does not pretend to be representative of Valencian society as a whole. From the interviewees’ knowledge, experiences, behaviours and beliefs about their languages, a series of good practices, methodologies and strategies for the improvement of Catalan language learning emerged. The results obtained highlight the Catalan language’s difficult sociolinguistic situation as well as the need to ensure a suitable multilingual education. It has been found that the knowledge of the Catalan language based only on what the interviewed young people learned at school is not sufficient and that it would be advisable to work on linguistic attitudes in teaching and on the linguistic assertiveness of minority language speakers.

A prerequisite for learning is that instructions and other learning activities take place in a language that you understand. This may seem self-evident, but fact remains that most learners in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are taught in a European second language (L2) that they are unfamiliar with. Frequently, the role of the home languages in the classrooms has been completely subtracted leading to very unfavourable learning situations for many pupils, something which in turn results in failures and early drop-out. The current paper takes up some of the challenges, dilemmas and consequences of current medium of instruction (MoI) policies as illustrated by theories and previous studies. Part 2 gives an outline of the analytical framework being developed under the Understanding project financed by the Swedish research Council. The purpose of the framework is to help reveal strengths, shortcomings and mismatches in current language-in-education policies. Focus lies on how different policy levels acknowledge the challenges involved in learning and teaching through a second language in SSA contexts. The model provides a systematic framework for explorations of how language-in-education policy outcomes (mis)match intentions. The framework, though adapted for SSA contexts, has direct relevance to the analysis of language-in-education polices in Western education systems.

‘Translanguaging’ has become the most popular term in discussions about how to use learners’ languages as resources for target language teaching/learning, but it has also become ambiguous because it is being developed in proposals adopting different perspectives on multilingualism. The first aim of this article is to offer an overview of the two main current proposals of translanguaging together: García and colleagues’ ‘spontaneous translanguaging’ and Cenoz and Gorter’s ‘pedagogical translanguaging’. ‘Spontaneous translanguaging’ argues that languages in the mind are represented as one single system and that the notion of transfer, consequently, must be rejected. This article argues that this view may not be practical because it makes it difficult for teachers to conceptualise what they are doing when raising awareness of similarities between learners’ languages. ‘Pedagogical translanguaging’, by contrast, centres around transfer. Whereas transfer is traditionally seen as unintentional ‘interference’, pedagogical translanguaging considers it a phenomenon that learners can use intentionally and creatively, and which teachers could promote by raising learners’ awareness of similarities between their languages. However, very little is known about how learners use transfer unintentionally versus intentionally. This article discusses key findings and implications from Fuster’s (2022) initial study on intentionality in lexical transfer within pedagogical translanguaging.

Hungarian and its status in education in Slovenia The Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia (Article 64) stipulates that in the ethnically mixed area of Prekmurje, Hungarian is recognised as an official language in addition to Slovene. This provision also implies the right to education in Hungarian as a first language (L1), which is provided by bilingual school programmes in kindergartens, and primary and secondary schools. All pupils, regardless of their nationality and L1, are grouped in common classes and lessons are taught in both languages. Slovene and Hungarian are both subjects and languages of instruction in all other subjects. Additionally, Hungarian can be studied at the Universities of Maribor and Ljubljana. Hungarian in educational research Research on bilingual education is conducted by the National Education Institute of Slovenia, as well as the Institute for Ethnic Studies in Ljubljana and its branch in Lendava/Lendva, the Institute for Educational Research in Ljubljana, and the Faculties of Arts at the Universities of Maribor and Ljubljana. Research institutes in Hungary often collaborate with Slovenian research institutes to conduct research on the Hungarian language and on other Hungarian ethnic community-related issues. These research projects also cover different aspects of bilingual education, in particular with regard to teacher competencies and the preparation of teaching materials. Prospects for Hungarian in Slovenia After more than 60 years of existence, bilingual education is proving its vitality and relevance to the linguistic needs of inhabitants of both nationalities in the ethnically mixed area of Prekmurje. The bilingual school continues to work for the maintenance and development of the Hungarian language and culture, and for the active participation of the two communities in the area and beyond. The further development of Hungarian in Slovenia, however, requires constant attention and support from the state, Hungarian and its status in education in Slovenia The Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia (Article 64) stipulates that in the ethnically mixed area of Prekmurje, Hungarian is recognised as an official language in addition to Slovene. This provision also implies the right to education in Hungarian as a first language (L1), which is provided by bilingual school programmes in kindergartens, and primary and secondary schools. All pupils, regardless of their nationality and L1, are grouped in common classes and lessons are taught in both languages. Slovene and Hungarian are both subjects and languages of instruction in all other subjects. Additionally, Hungarian can be studied at the Universities of Maribor and Ljubljana. Hungarian in educational research Research on bilingual education is conducted by the National Education Institute of Slovenia, as well as the Institute for Ethnic Studies in Ljubljana and its branch in Lendava/Lendva, the Institute for Educational Research in Ljubljana, and the Faculties of Arts at the Universities of Maribor and Ljubljana. Research institutes in Hungary often collaborate with Slovenian research institutes to conduct research on the Hungarian language and on other Hungarian ethnic community-related issues. These research projects also cover different aspects of bilingual education, in particular with regard to teacher competencies and the preparation of teaching materials. Prospects for Hungarian in Slovenia After more than 60 years of existence, bilingual education is proving its vitality and relevance to the linguistic needs of inhabitants of both nationalities in the ethnically mixed area of Prekmurje. The bilingual school continues to work for the maintenance and development of the Hungarian language and culture, and for the active participation of the two communities in the area and beyond. The further development of Hungarian in Slovenia, however, requires constant attention and suppo

The present research focuses on studying teachers’ beliefs about the complexity of learning the curricular languages in the Basque Country, with special focus on Basque, the minority language. The study adopts a mixed-methods research design. For the quantitative data, 1093 participants completed a specifically designed online questionnaire, which was administered to three groups: pre-service (N = 564), in-service (N = 418), and university teachers (N = 111). In the qualitative part of the study, the beliefs of 20 in-service teachers were collected through four focus groups. The results indicate that in-service and university teachers hold favourable beliefs toward learning curricular languages, and consider Basque a difficult language to learn, even more so than English and French. However, the statistical results suggest a significant change in that belief for the pre-service teachers, who perceive Basque easier to learn than English and French. This perception could result in the gradual elimination of the ‘difficult language’ label given to Basque. Moreover, in-service teachers show concerns about the imbalance between the knowledge of the minority language and the use. In particular, they seek innovative solutions for establishing Basque at the core of multilingual education, so that this minoritized language can take safe steps forward towards normalisation.

This quantitative research focuses on exploring and describing the beliefs of 418 in-service teachers on language teaching approaches and multilingualism in the South of the Basque Country. The findings report key factors and features of multilingual education in the region where Basque (minority language), Spanish (majority language), English (first foreign language) and French (second foreign language) are integrated in the curriculum. Results indicate that teachers' views about language teaching approaches are in line with current trends and theories about multilingual language teaching methodologies. The ANOVA results highlight the significant influence of two variables, in-service teachers' self-reported L3 (English) proficiency level and the teaching through their L3, on the development of these beliefs. Implications of this study may help to better understand the importance of developing and implementing specifically designed courses based on multilingual language teaching approaches to exploit the existing in-service teachers' favorable beliefs and therefore to materialize and adopt more vanguard multilingual teaching practices that may boost language learning.

In this study, we analyse how multilingual students portray themselves, what attitudes do they hold regarding translanguaging pedagogies and how these pedagogies may or not, in reverse, be related to students’ own self-concept as multilingual speakers. The study presents the results of an intervention based on Pedagogical Translanguaging (PT) conducted in a secondary public school with a high rate of students of an immigrant origin. For data collection, a questionnaire was designed combining closed Likert-type questions and open questions, and the materials gathered from the intervention were analysed. The results showed that most of the participants portrayed themselves as multilingual speakers with fluid interactions between their languages but with very specific feelings and functions attached to them. Additionally, most of the participants reported that the intervention was positive in the development of their critical thinking and selfconcept. These results challenge the monolingual perspectives on (language) teaching and highlight new challenges in the goal of including more flexible curriculums and immigrant students’ home languages in the classrooms.

Corsican and its status in education in France On the French island of Corsica, it is estimated that roughly a quarter to a third of the population can speak the Corsican language well, while over half can understand it. The language is officially recognised by the French Constitution as belonging to the heritage of France. Over the past 25 years, several laws, decrees, regulations, and policies have gradually strengthened the institutional support for the Corsican language. Today, French-Corsican bilingual education is most prevalent in pre-school (reaching 59% of all pre-school children in Corsica) and primary school (51%), dropping to 26% in lower secondary education (French: collège), after which bilingual education is virtually non-existent. Corsican is a mandatory subject in pre-school (3 hours per week) and primary school (typically 1.5–3 hours), while this is optional for students in secondary education and beyond (59% choose Corsican in lower secondary education and 13% in higher secondary education, with instruction for 3 hours per week). Corsican in educational research The University of Corsica in Corte offers a complete study programme that specialises in Corsican language and culture. Research projects are typically set up as collaborations between the University of Corsica and the National Higher Institute for Teaching and Education (Institut national supérieur de l’enseignement et de l’éducation – INSPE) in Corsica, and/or the National Centre for Scientific Research (Centre national de la recherche scientifique – CNRS). Important linguistic and sociolinguistic studies have focused on the polynomic character of the Corsican language, that is, the way in which language users accept and embrace linguistic variation as a feature of Corsican, avoiding imposed standardisation. The didactical implications of this phenomenon have also been the subject of educational research. Prospects for Corsican in France

Friulian and its status in education in Italy The Italian State approved Law 482/1999 to protect the many historical linguistic minorities that are present in its territory, including Friulian. Despite emphasising Italian as the official language of the Italian Republic, the law requires the teaching of minority languages in schools, among other provisions. Based on this State Law, the Autonomous Region of Friuli Venezia Giulia passed Regional Law 29/2007, which governs the presence of Friulian in education. Following a challenging law-making process, which saw the State Government firmly oppose the introduction of Friulian as a default educational offer, this Regional Law stipulates that the language should be offered as an optional subject for at least 30 hours per year in kindergartens, primary schools, and lower secondary schools in the Friulian-speaking territory (closely corresponding to the former provinces of Udine, Pordenone, and Gorizia). However, the extent of Friulian class attendance varies across educational levels and provinces. While over 80% of kindergarten pupils in the area of Udine attend Friulian classes, the percentage drops to below 20% in primary schools in the former province of Pordenone and falls to zero in lower secondary schools in the territory of Gorizia. Friulian in educational research Research on the use of Friulian in education began in the late 1970s. Since then, it has been continued by the University of Udine, which is the main and only university in the Friulian-speaking territory, as well as by other entities, such as the Friulian Philological Society. Although a noteworthy development occurred in 2016, when a specific curriculum for the initial training of teachers of Friulian was inaugurated in the MA programme in Primary Teacher Education at the University of Udine, Friulian has limited presence at university. Apart from that curriculum and a few other linguistics, philology, and literature co

Viktoria Gruber, BEd., Masterarbeit Universität Innsbruck 2024

Maltese and its status in education in Malta Maltese, or il-Malti, is a Semitic language closely related to Arabic in structure and morphology but is written from left to right and in the Latin script. When Malta became an independent state within the Commonwealth in 1964, the new Constitution highlighted the importance of Maltese by giving it both a national and an official status. Since 2002, Maltese has also been recognised as an official language within the EU. The systematic teaching of Maltese started in the early 20th century, and since 1946, Maltese has always been one of the core subjects in both primary and secondary education. Malta’s current guiding educational framework, the National Curriculum Framework from 2012, does not outline a policy regarding the language of instruction, but does recognise the need for such a policy, and efforts have been undertaken to address these issues of entitlement, culture, and implementation. In response to the increasing numbers of pupils in Maltese schools whose first language is neither Maltese nor English, courses have recently been developed to teach Maltese as a foreign language. Maltese in educational research Educational research has shown that, in most schools, educators are aware of the need to introduce both Maltese and English at an early age and to create activities where both languages are used. The majority of State school educators focus on Maltese, while in Independent and Church schools, however, there is an emphasis on English. Research on Maltese in education is mainly carried out at the University of Malta. Maltese linguistics is also studied internationally, and the International Association of Maltese Linguistics was founded to serve as a platform to stimulate the study of Maltese and connect researchers interested in Maltese linguistics. Prospects for Maltese in Malta Malta has now become a country with a high non-Maltese populat

In this article, the author draws on evidence from newly emerged states’ language policy and planning in the Iranian Plateau, and its surrounding Silk Roads region, in order to illustrate that the European nation-state model has been a major cause of linguistic discrimination in this region although separatist movements can assume that establishing a new state can protect their ethnic languages. The adaptation of this form of governance in these territories has seriously damaged the region’s organic linguistic repertoire. The failure of the modern state to provide an inclusive language policy has long been observed and discussed in the field of sociology of language. In this article, the author provides examples to show that newly emerged nation-states oppress the Indigenous minority languages within them and fall short of satisfactorily addressing the language issues of immigrants because of their narrow and inflexible definitions of nationhood and national identity. Additionally, the author illustrates that nation-states not only target minority languages, but also they undermine the very ethnic language that they claim to promote. This happens by elevating the status of one variation of the ethnic language and at the same time devaluating the other dialects and accents. The author concludes that investment in nation-statism may or may not lead to the creation of a state that is respectful of linguistic human rights. A more meaningful investment in terms of language planning is organizing anti-discrimination movements both in current larger states or possible future ethnic states., Apesar das visões dos movimentos separatistas etnonacionalistas de criar novos estados para proteger as suas línguas étnicas oprimidas em contextos de estados dominantes, entendo que alcançar uma educação multilingue inclusiva pode ser difícil, a menos que esses novos estados possam aderir fortemente a políticas educativas antidiscriminatórias. O texto ilustra como Estados-nação recém-surgidos podem oprimir as línguas minoritárias indígenas e falhar em abordar satisfatoriamente as questões linguísticas dos imigrantes devido às suas definições estreitas e inflexíveis de nacionalidade e de identidade nacional. O artigo também mostra que os Estados etnonacionalistas por vezes podem minar a própria língua étnica que afirmam promover. Isso acontece através da desvalorização das variações “não padronizadas” da língua étnica e da elevação do status o do inglês sobre as línguas locais, por ser a língua da ciência e da aprendizagem. Conclui-se que o investimento no estatismo-nação não conduz automaticamente à criação de um sistema educativo anti-discriminatório que esteja empenhado em proteger a diversidade linguística., A pesar de las visiones de los movimientos separatistas etnonacionalistas de crear nuevos estados para proteger sus lenguas étnicas oprimidas en contextos estatales dominantes, entiendo que lograr una educación multilingüe inclusiva puede ser difícil a menos que estos nuevos estados puedan adherirse firmemente a políticas educativas antidiscriminatorias. El texto ilustra cómo los Estados-nación recién surgidos pueden oprimir las lenguas minoritarias indígenas y no lograr abordar satisfactoriamente las preocupaciones lingüísticas de los inmigrantes debido a sus definiciones estrechas e inflexibles de nación e identidad nacional. El artículo también muestra que los estados etnonacionalistas a veces pueden socavar el lenguaje étnico que dicen promover. Esto sucede a través de la devaluación de las variaciones “no estándar” del idioma étnico y la elevación del estatus del inglés por encima de los idiomas locales, como idioma de la ciencia y el aprendizaje. Se concluye que la inversión en nacionalismo no conduce automáticamente a la creación de un sistema educativo antidiscriminatorio y comprometido con la protección de la diversidad lingüística.

In this study of a postcolonial school, we expand understandings of epistemic justice from the perspective of language, addressing issues of know-ledge, understanding, and participation in communicative practices. We suggest that monoglossic language-in-education policies constitute a form of epistemic injustice by diminishing learners’ ability to make epistemic contributions, a capacity central to human value. We further suggest that translanguaging in formal school settings generally promotes epistemic access rather than epistemic justice, leaving value hierarchies and relations of knowing unchanged. Conversely, this study presents linguistic ethnographic data from a three-year project where learners could choose their language of learning to Grade 6 and use all languages in subject classrooms. We analyse how a Grade 6 learner used laminated, multilingual stances to construct others as knowers, negotiate epistemic authority, and promote solidarity. We argue that she thereby constructed new decolonial relations of knowing and being. Moreover, the shift from monolingual to multilingual episteme, which substantially improved performance overall, enabled new social, epistemic, and moral orders to emerge from below, laying the basis for greater epistemic justice.

A prerequisite for learning is that instructions and other activities take place in a language you understand. This may seem self-evident, but the fact remains that a majority of learners in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are taught in a European second language (L2) that they are unfamiliar with. Frequently, the role of the home languages in supporting learning in the classrooms has been totally removed – so called subtractive transitions – resulting in failures and early drop-outs. According to the World Bank, inadequate language of instruction policies is a major factor contributing to learning poverty in SSA. The project described in this article addresses this problem by furthering knowledge of additive multilingual education (MLE), i.e. models where the use of the L1 is maintained to support learning after the L2 is introduced as the language of learning and teaching. More specifically, the project seeks to gain a better and systematic understanding of the guiding principles behind language-in-education policies, and how steering documents and curricula in various L2 MoI transition systems in SSA acknowledge (or not) the realities and challenges involved in learning and teaching through a second language. Through interviews and observations, the project also explores how language-in-education policy directives and recommendations translate into practice in the field. Four transition systems are explored under the project: immersion, early transition, mid-transition and late transition., Att förstå förståelse - Stödja förståelse i klassrummet genom förståelse av läroplansstrukturer (2022-03715)

International students in the US face challenges in navigating university-level academic writing, particularly if English is not their first language. To succeed in their coursework, they must demonstrate mastery of course content, academic English, and writing conventions, while also balancing their native writing habits. Facing these difficulties, international students employ different resources (i.e., repertoires) to facilitate their writing. Understanding challenges international students face as well as resources they employ allows instructors to better support this population.This study examines the academic writing experiences of Chinese university-level international students through the lens of translanguaging in order to identify these repertoires and explore how students use them. The research question is: how does translanguaging interact with Chinese international students’ academic writing outside the traditional classroom setting? Through in-depth interviews with seven multilingual Chinese international students, this study reveals that Chinese international students may feel disadvantaged in the American education system because they cannot fully showcase their mastery of course content in their second language, English. Translanguaging is a tool that can help alleviate this disadvantage, and participants in this study used it automatically. However, they kept this process in their mind, separate from the policed zone of written text due to internalized English-only policies.

The American demographic is constantly changing from the prominently white, Anglo-Saxon population to a diverse, multicultural, multilingual dynamic. According to the United States Census Bureau, the non-Hispanic white population is projected to shrink over the coming decades, from 199 million people in 2020 to 179 million people in 2060 - even as the U.S. population continues to grow. Regardless of such national trends, many teachers are not prepared to teach Latinx students because they have not been provided nor participated in the professional development of culturally responsive classrooms. This improvement science initiative holds that by increasing knowledge and building the capacity of teachers to create culturally responsive classrooms, the literacy performance of Latinx students will improve. This initiative aims to see growth in the literacy achievement of Latinx students as measured by North Carolina English II End of Course assessment scores.

Italian and its status in education in Slovenia In the Slovene Littoral, Slovene and Italian are official languages and thus they share equal status in public and private life. Learners in this region attend schools either with Slovene as the medium of instruction or with Italian as the medium of instruction, from pre-school to upper secondary education, and receive additional compulsory education in Italian as a second language (L2; Slovene schools) or Slovene L2 (Italian schools). Enrolment is open to all learners, regardless of their linguistic and cultural origin. In Slovenia, Italian is offered as a first language (L1) and L2 in the bilingual areas in the Slovene Littoral and as a foreign language in the rest of the national territory. Italian in educational research Educational research on Italian is conducted by the Department of Italian Studies and Faculty of Education at the University of Primorska, the Science and Research Centre in Koper, the Department of Italian and Faculty of Education at the University of Ljubljana, and the National Education Institute. The University of Primorska and the Science and Research Centre in Koper are the only institutions that conduct research specifically on Italian as L1 and L2. The Department of Italian Studies at the University of Primorska offers a doctoral study programme in Italian L1 literature, L1 and L2 linguistics, and didactics. Prospects for Italian in Slovenia The institutional support for bilingualism, enshrined in the Constitution and legislation of Slovenia, requires continuous monitoring due to the ever-changing social context. The major challenges today are to enhance motivation for learning Italian in school and to ensure constant exposure to the language outside school. To achieve this aim, more systematic solutions are required if schools are to continue to carry out the role of supporting the maintenance and further development of plu

Higher Education is a particularly important area of actual or potential application for language policy and planning. Such applications raise questions that range from fundamental social and political issues about the role of different languages in contemporary societies in an era of globalization, internationalization and AI, to very practical organizational and pedagogical problems. The chapter analyses some key concepts that can help to delineate a (public) policy analysis perspective on Higher Education Language Policies (HELP). The question of HELP is examined through some key theoretical inputs. An analytical framework to approach HELPs in an integrative and systemic model is proposed, so as some challenges confronting HELPs are discussed.

Slovene and its status in education in Austria In a defined area of Southern Carinthia, Austria, Slovene is protected as a minority language. Despite being an officially recognised minority language, the official use of Slovene is limited to few domains. In the 2001 census, 12,554 Austrian citizens reported that they use Slovene in everyday life. Although pre-school education is not part of the Austrian education system, bilingual nursery schools are funded by the province. Bilingual primary and lower secondary education are granted by law in the southern part of Carinthia; this is executed as bilingual teaching in primary school and as language teaching in lower secondary school. There are two bilingual upper secondary schools, and one with Slovene as the language of instruction. At the tertiary level, Slovene can be studied at the universities of Klagenfurt, Graz, and Vienna. Teacher education is provided by the university college of teacher training Carinthia and the universities of Klagenfurt, Graz and Vienna. Outside the legally defined territory, Slovene can be offered as a subject at every educational level. The overall number of pupils and students studying (in) Slovene, however, is low. Slovene in educational research Research on bilingual education and education in Slovene is mostly conducted by the University of Klagenfurt/Celovec (Department of Education and Department of Slavonic Studies), the University College for Teacher Education Carinthia, and sometimes by teacher education students in Graz and Vienna, and at Slovenian universities. The teaching and perception of teaching of Slovene have been investigated using interviews; however, there has been little classroom research. Such studies have consistently highlighted similar issues of bilingual education in Carinthia, indicating that hardly any improvements have been made. Prospects for Slovene in Austria Since the public use of Slove

Prospects for Basque in

Lithuanian and its status in education in Poland The Constitution of the Republic of Poland contains two articles that pertain directly to minority rights, in which it is stated that Polish citizens belonging to national or ethnic minorities have the freedom to maintain and develop their own language and establish educational institutions. The 1991 Act on the Education System grants pupils the right to maintain their national, ethnic, religious, and linguistic identity, and gives them the right to education in their mother tongue, as well as education about its history and culture. Regarding pre-school education for the Lithuanian minority in Poland, there are three kindergartens. Three primary schools and one secondary school offer education in Lithuanian. Lithuanian in educational research For political reasons, educational and sociolinguistic research on minority/regional language communities showed little development between World War II and 1989. Since then, research has focused on the situation of schooling in Lithuanian; however, there have been no studies on Lithuanian as a medium of instruction or as a subject. Prospects for Lithuanian in Poland The prospects for the Lithuanian language among the Lithuanian minority in Poland are in general quite good, as there are still a few primary and secondary schools left that teach in Lithuanian. However, intermarriage between Poles and Lithuanians is becoming increasingly common and this can be considered a certain threat. From one side, intermarriages indicate the assimilation of the minority, and from another, they indicate a threat of losing identity and with that, heritage, tradition, and language.

The purpose of this study was to explore translanguaging patterns in Xitsonga classrooms at high schools in Mkhuhlu, specifically M.L Nkuna High School. In this study, translanguaging patterns were tracked at M.L Nkuna high school, whereby some learners almost have little or no exposure to Xitsonga at home, but they enroll for Xitsonga as Home Language (HL). The language policy of the school provides for Xitsonga as an official HL, yet there are those who speak SiSwati and other languages as their Home Languages. There is high failure rate of Xitsonga Home Language as a subject. The researcher observed lessons and conducted interviews on teachers and learners to develop the case, which may be used to enrich an understanding of other cases that include translanguaging as a pedagogic tool. The study was qualitative within transformative paradigm. The researcher observed that translanguaging was not adequately used within Xitsonga classrooms at M.L Nkuna high school. Moreover, the researcher acknowledge the view that if translanguaging was used properly in classrooms, improvement of learning experience would be realized. Moreover, the researcher views translanguaging as an integral part of the environment of M.L Nkuna High School, in order to bridge the gap between learners in multilingual classrooms. Lastly, there is a need to conduct a survey on language policies in schools

A video-presentation of the Congress communication is available at the following link: https://vimeo.com/647017226., The main aim of this contribution is to introduce the FURLEUS project, whose acronym stands for FURLan (i.e., Friulian) + EUSkara (i.e., Basque) and which is funded within the Horizon 2020—Marie-Skłodowska Curie Actions—European Individual Fellowship. To contextualise it, an overview of the rich, dynamic and complex situation characterising multilingual education in the two European regions involved will also be provided. After a concise review of recent literature on teacher attitudes and motivation, the two contexts of interest for the research project will be presented. These are the Basque Autonomous Community (BAC) in Spain, an internationally-known context for the success of the revitalisation of the Basque minority language within a multilingual educational system, and Friuli Venezia Giulia (FVG) in Italy, an Autonomous Region whose Special Statute is deeply linked with its linguistic diversity and which is striving to implement the teaching of and through Friulian within multilingual education in its schools. A theoretical review of the main research studies underpinning the project as well as some relevant contextual background for both the BAC and FVG will be offered. Then, the outline of the FURLEUS project will be described and, finally, a few remarks on why it matters will conclude the chapter.

This contribution focusses on teachers’ perspectives on ways of motivating students in multilingual education settings where a local minority language co-exists with a State majority language, English as a lingua franca and additional immigrant languages. The findings we will be reporting on are from a study that was carried out in the two regions of the Basque Autonomous Community in Spain and of Friuli Venezia Giulia in Italy. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with 42 primary and secondary school teachers from both contexts, and data were analysed by means of content analysis following Dörnyei’s (2001) and Henry et al.’s (2018) taxonomies. Motivational activities described by teachers were categorised based on the language/s in which they were carried out. Empirically supporting Dörnyei’s and Henry et al.’s proposals, findings show that activities with authentic and teacher-created materials are prevalent, whatever the language, while textbooks appear to be almost never used. Designing activities that involve the use of authentic materials requires that teachers possess solid pedagogical and linguistic skills, a circumstance which makes the development of language awareness skills a priority in teacher education and professional development courses. Based on such findings, implications for future research are discussed.

Majority of South African learners come from diverse linguistic, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, their diversities in classroom require learning and teaching approaches that are capable of ensuring that classroom interactions fulfil learners’ multilingual needs and also help to improve the learning conditions–and thus the educational system of the country. Learners in South African rural and township schools have limited exposure to English. They come from impoverished backgrounds in which English does not form part of their daily communication, except that they are only exposed to the language at school. Translanguaging seems to be an approach that can be implemented to overcome language barriers in classrooms and resolve the challenges pertaining to the educational system of South Africa. This study aims to disclose how Translanguaging can be implemented to disrupt power imbalances of languages and how its implementation can create an inclusive classroom. The aim of this study is to investigate the benefits of using Translanguaging in a Grade 4 during Life Skills lessons. The study used a qualitative research methodology and adopted a comparative research design. The study has found that learners learn better in a language that they are proficient in. The implication to this finding is that policy makers must be advised to either add Translanguaging as a learning model to the existing models or redesign the existing models to bring transformation as well as to promote African languages as media of instruction

This study of a postcolonial site engages with epistemic justice from the perspective of language. It understands epistemic justice as relating to issues of knowledge, understanding, and participation in communicative practices. It suggests that monoglossic language-in-education policies, often colonial in origin, constitute a form of epistemic injustice by denying learners the opportunity to learn in a familiar language and removing their ability to make epistemic contributions, a capacity central to human value. It further suggests that translanguaging in formal school settings is for the most part geared towards a monolingual outcome, that is, towards accessing knowledge in an official language. This unidirectional impetus means that translanguaging remains an affirmative rather than transformative strategy, leaving underlying hierarchies of value and relations of knowing unchanged. In contrast, this study presents linguistic ethnographic data from a three-year pilot project in Cape Town where primary school learners could choose their medium of instruction to Grade 6 and use all languages in subject classrooms. It analyses how a Grade 6 learner used laminated, multilingual, affective and epistemic stances to construct others as knowers, negotiate epistemic authority, and promote solidarity. It proposes that, in so doing, she constructed new decolonial relations of knowing and being. It further proposes that the shift from a monolingual to a multilingual episteme, which substantially improved educational performance overall, also enabled the emergence of politically fragile yet institutionally robust social, epistemic, and moral orders from below, orders that could lay the basis for greater epistemic justice., Towards Epistemic Justice: Language, Identity, and Relations of Knowing in Post-colonial Schools, Multilingualism and identities in and out of school: urban youth on the Cape Flats

A long-standing pedagogical implication of the traditional monolingual perspective in research and education has been to discourage any use of non-target languages in the L2 classroom as an attempt to reduce ‘interferences’ (i.e., transfer) between learners’ languages. Within the current multilingual paradigm shift, however, it has become clear that multilingualism can be an asset and the positive effects of transfer are acknowledged. The recent theoretical proposal of ‘pedagogical translanguaging’ suggests that teachers may help learners find opportunities to transfer aspects from their languages intentionally, as a resource or creative strategy, by raising their awareness of similarities between their languages. Yet, from an empirical perspective very little is known about (un)intentionality in transfer. This thesis investigates how multilingual language learners use transfer unintentionally versus intentionally and how several potentially important variables may be related to (un)inten-tionality in transfer. The focus is on lexical transfer in the written production of multilingual learners of Spanish in Sweden. Written transfer data were collected from 78 students in heterogeneously multilingual classrooms, including learners with different language backgrounds. Words that were reported (intro- or retrospectively) by a learner to have been transferred from a background language were coded as instances of intentional transfer. Conversely, when non-target-like words that could be traced back to a background language by the researcher were used but not com-mented on by the learner, they were coded as instances of unintentional transfer. A quasi-Poisson regression analysis was employed to test the significance of transfer factors on learners’ amounts of unintentional and intentional transfer. A qualitative lexical analysis was conducted, moreover, to explore how the different types of lexical transfer were manifested depending on whether they were produced unintenti

Classroom language ecologies are increasingly diverse as a result of mobility, migration, and information technology. In these spaces, interlocutors may draw upon shared linguistic and cultural resources but also bring in others. Prime examples are additional-language (AL) classrooms, where there is a shared target language, but where students may have different first languages from their classmates and teacher. In this chapter, we review empirical research on interaction in multilingual classrooms in approaches such as ethnography, translanguaging, and conversation analysis (CA), and discuss methods and findings in relation to the growing field of intercultural pragmatics (IP). Additionally, we offer an empirical illustration from video ethnography research in multilingual English AL classrooms in Sweden. With a CA approach, we demonstrate how a group of students participating in a vocabulary game manage an instance of diverging understandings of an English word. We show how, in resolving this interactional trouble, participants draw on the target language English and the societal/school language Swedish, and we discuss the observations in light of the IP concepts of salience and common ground. Finally, we argue that classroom studies detailing social actors’ language repertoires by using audiovisual data are essential in advancing our understanding of multilingual AL classrooms.

In recent years multilingual approaches to teaching have been widely discussed and translanguaging has been proposed as a pedagogy that offers very positive results in many contexts. Overall, the need to reverse monolingual assumptions among teachers and to adapt pedagogical translanguaging to each context has been highlighted. For that purpose, training preservice teachers on multilingualism, translanguaging and on how to transform their educational practises is fundamental. In the present study, we train 117 preservice teachers on translanguaging and materials’ design and analyse the created materials quantitatively and qualitatively. The outcomes reveal some common traces among the materials presented and these are analysed as related to infant and primary teachers’ professional development and to a broader educational context.

Classroom language ecologies are increasingly diverse as a result of mobility, migration, and information technology. In these spaces, interlocutors may draw upon shared linguistic and cultural resources but also bring in others. Prime examples are additional-language (AL) classrooms, where there is a shared target language, but where students may have different first languages from their classmates and teacher. In this chapter, we review empirical research on interaction in multilingual classrooms in approaches such as ethnography, translanguaging, and conversation analysis (CA), and discuss methods and findings in relation to the growing field of intercultural pragmatics (IP). Additionally, we offer an empirical illustration from video ethnography research in multilingual English AL classrooms in Sweden. With a CA approach, we demonstrate how a group of students participating in a vocabulary game manage an instance of diverging understandings of an English word. We show how, in resolving this interactional trouble, participants draw on the target language English and the societal/school language Swedish, and we discuss the observations in light of the IP concepts of salience and common ground. Finally, we argue that classroom studies detailing social actors’ language repertoires by using audiovisual data are essential in advancing our understanding of multilingual AL classrooms.

It is not surprising that as we come upon the thirtieth anniversary of the birth of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), this young pedagogical approach is still a complicated phenomenon, with a wide variety of issues in every aspect of education remaining to be addressed. CLIL assessment is one of them. Although over a decade has passed since Coyle et al. (2010) necessitated an explicit understanding of the assessment process in CLIL, “the variety and depth of issues that remain on the CLIL agenda suggest more research on CLIL assessment is indeed needed before future research can offer clear and workable solutions for both teachers and students” (De Angelis, 2021, p. 32). To this end, the book entitled Assessment and Learning in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) Classrooms: Approaches and Conceptualisations is a timely response, both in scope and usefulness. It is a successful compilation of papers, which link various theoretical perspectives with different research paradigms and feature the discussion of classroom assessment aimed at improving the quality standard of education. The value of this volume is undeniable, and both researchers and educators can benefit from it, with a dialectical relationship established between research and classroom practices.

This paper discusses the state of affairs of dialect education in the southern Dutch province of North Brabant. The dialects spoken here lack formal recognition. Therefore, the province pursues a heritage policy that protects and promotes the dialects as cultural capital. However, a recent questionnaire among teachers and material developers has revealed that local and provincial initiatives for dialect education have not yet been implemented in a sustainable way in primary and secondary education (Doreleijers, 2021). Although teachers indicate willingness to implement dialect in education, there is a lack of knowledge of existing materials and a discrepancy between demand and the quality of supply. The aim of this paper is to look for ways to implement non-recognized dialects in the curriculum. It argues that the current situation in North Brabant can be improved by integrating dialects into the holistic model for multilingualism in education (Duarte & Günther-van der Meij, 2018).

[EN] Ælfric of Eynsham was a Benedictine monk who lived and taught Latin in tenth- and eleventh-century England. He wrote his Colloquy in order for his pupils to practise their oral skills while acquiring specific vocabulary, and he is often regarded as one of the most innovative pedagogues of his time. Ælfric Bata, a pupil of his, also produced his own colloquies and enlarged much of his master’s work. This dissertation draws a comparison between the colloquies written by these two authors, especially focusing on the fact that Bata’s eccentric language radically deviates from the stylistic dogma that characterised Ælfric’s text, which goes to show that these authors had different views of how Latin had to be taught and of the knowledge that had to be transmitted in the classroom. Based on the synchronic and diachronic implications of the colloquies, this paper emphasises that they posed a novelty not only considering that they opened a window into monastic life, but also owing to their usage as context-specific language learning tools, which makes it possible to suggest analogies between these texts and contemporary methods of foreign language teaching such as English for Specific Purposes., [ES] Ælfric de Eynsham fue un monje benedictino que vivió y enseñó latín en Inglaterra entre los siglos X y XI. Escribió su Coloquio con la intención de que sus alumnos practicaran la expresión oral a la vez que adquirían vocabulario específico, y a menudo se le considera uno de los pedagogos más innovadores de su época. Ælfric Bata, discípulo suyo, escribió sus propios coloquios y amplió buena parte de la obra de su maestro. En este trabajo se comparan los coloquios de ambos autores, haciendo hincapié en que el lenguaje excéntrico de los textos de Bata se aleja radicalmente del dogma estilístico que caracterizaba la obra de Ælfric, lo que demuestra que estos autores tenían distintas visiones de cómo debía enseñarse el latín y de los conocimientos que debían transmitirse en el aula. Teniendo en cuenta las implicaciones sincrónicas y diacrónicas de los coloquios, podemos afirmar que fueron textos novedosos por la forma en que nos permiten adentrarnos en la vida monástica y por su utilización como herramientas de aprendizaje que fueron adaptadas a su contexto pedagógico, lo que nos permite trazar similitudes entre los coloquios y otros métodos contemporáneos de enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras como el English for Specific Purposes.

This article refers to the activities of the Assembly of the peoples of Kazakhstan, as well as the blingval and multilingual education circles used in Uzbek schools in Uzbekistan.

Learning through the medium of a second or additional language is becoming very common in different parts of the world because of the increasing use of English as the language of instruction and the mobility of populations. This situation demands a specific approach that considers multilingualism as its core. Pedagogical translanguaging is a theoretical and instructional approach that aims at improving language and content competences in school contexts by using resources from the learner's whole linguistic repertoire. Pedagogical translanguaging is learner-centred and endorses the support and development of all the languages used by learners. It fosters the development of metalinguistic awareness by softening of boundaries between languages when learning languages and content. This Element looks at the way pedagogical translanguaging can be applied in language and content classes and how it can be valuable for the protection and promotion of minority languages. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.

Both Sweden and Finland have education systems promoting equity and equality. However, recent societal and political changes linked to increased immigration have created new challenges in efforts to support linguistic diversity. This paper aims to explore how multilingualism is represented in the national compulsory school curricula in the two contexts, using the language orientation framework: language as problem, right, or resource. The analysis reveals differences. In Finland, an explicit discourse on multilingual education exists, with an aim of integrating multilingual perspectives into the whole curriculum. In Sweden, however, the discourse is less explicit; and multilingualism as a concept is limited to minority language students. Considering language orientations in the two curricula affords an understanding of the spaces for multilingual education that are key to our possibilities as educators to promote linguistic diversity and social justice in the schools of today’s global societies. © 2020, © 2020 The Author(s). Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

This study examined the ways in which a middle school with a Spanish/English and a Mandarin/English Dual Language (DL) program has sustained these programs despite the obstacles identified by research. DL programs aim to achieve the goals of additive bilingualism, biliteracy, and sociocultural competence, while meeting grade-level academic expectations. I examined navigation of obstacles and identification of essential supporting structures. I conducted interviews of school leaders and teachers in order to learn best practices for sustainability. In this study sustainability is defined as the ability to achieve the aforementioned goals amid ongoing change while ensuring equity for marginalized students. These practices include program design, curriculum and instruction, recruitment and retention, and professional development. Additionally, observations and documents provided further data on how these practices unfolded and confirmed interview data collected. This case study highlights the challenges inherent in a DL program while also illustrating the way administrators and teachers overcome threats and maintain a successful program. Key findings reveal known and unknown challenges and solutions to the sustainability of DL middle schools. The three categories are equity, finances, and recruitment and retention. This study will enable other schools considering or implementing a DL middle school to understand the processes of, the obstacles and the solutions to anticipated problems.

In recent years new ideas about multilingualism and translanguaging have been widely debated in applied linguistics and sociolinguistics. A growing number of studies have investigated different aspects of translanguaging. Thus far only a few studies have focused on teachers' beliefs, attitudes or ideologies. In an earlier study, we found monolingual assumptions to be strong among teachers in the Basque Country and in Friesland. In the current study in-service teachers' beliefs about multilingualism and translanguaging are discussed in relation to the key role that teachers can play in changing educational practices. During a course of continuing professional development in-service teachers received training on multilingual approaches. Before, during and after the course data were collected on their beliefs about multilingualism and translanguaging. The outcomes reveal some important changes in the teachers' beliefs about separating languages, mixing languages and languages supporting each other and the application of those beliefs in the classroom. The complex relationship between professional development and changes in teachers' beliefs and practices is placed in a broader context of multilingual approaches to teaching.