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En linjär ekonomi skapar ett resurs- och miljöproblem som på flera sätt skiljer sig från andra miljöproblem som är begränsade i sin rumsliga skala. En linjär ekonomi är ett samhälleligt problem eftersom den uppkommer på grund av flera externa effekter och andra marknadsmisslyckanden på marknader för till exempel råmaterial-utvinning, produktion, konsumtion, återvinning och återanvändning vilka påverkar varandra i en allmän jämvikt. Såväl praktiker som forskare har på senare år kommit med förslag på styrmedel för cirkulär ekonomi. Dock har styrmedelsanalyser, gjorda utifrån livscykelperspektiv och allmänna jämviktsförhållanden, hittills fått mindre uppmärksamhet i tillämpad forskningslitteratur. Projektet POLICIA tar detta som en utgångspunkt för att utveckla en integrerad ansats mellan cirkulärekonomiska (CE) modeller och livscykelanalys (LCA) som kan användas för att identifiera och analysera styrmedelskombinationer för att nå mål eller samhällsekonomiskt effektiva lösningar som innebär en övergång från linjära till cirkulära flöden. Projektet har gjort detta med en ny tvärvetenskaplig strategi inom styrmedelsforskning som kombinerar CE-modeller med LCA. Forskningen i POLICIA illustrerar vikten av att använda systemperspektiv med allmänna jämviktsmodeller och LCA för att styra mot cirkulära flöden. Resultaten visar att kombinationer av samverkande styrmedel är nödvändiga för att skapa förutsättningar för en övergång till en cirkulär ekonomi. Hur kan CE-LCA användas? För att nå mål som innebär en övergång från linjära till cirkulära flöden kommer ett flertal aktörer längs produkternas livscykler behöva förändra sina beteenden när det finns flera olika externa effekter samtidigt vilket ofta är fallet i en linjär ekonomi. Ofta påverkar aktörerna varandra på ett flertal marknader som är sammankopplade via flöden av produkter, material och energi. Ett styrmedel som riktas till en viss aktör kommer i allmänhet att påverka andra aktörers beteenden. Dessa effekter kan bli

This report presents a life cycle assessment (LCA) case study of a motorboat. The work is part of the POLICIA project where the overarching goal is to combine LCA and an economic-based model (POLICA CE model) into an integrated assessment. The aim of this model is to identify market failures and quantify policy effects of efficient combinations along the entire life cycle. The objective of the motorboat case study work is to enable the impact assessment of the LCA, to be incorporated into the POLICIA CE-model, so that environmental impacts of policies can be directly modelled and optimised. To achieve this, linear and circular variants of products were assessed to identify the key factors and life cycle stages that influence the environmental impact. It was found that the use phase dominated the linear version of the life cycle for all studied impact categories, due to the use of fossil fuels and anti-fouling paint. It is shown that circular business models aimed at boat electrification can provide the largest impact reductions. Whilst fossil fuels remain the primary source of boat propulsion, prolonging the boat’s life, or focussing on recycling of boat materials, will not provide a significant reduction in environmental impact. This is because the use phase and its associated pollution of water and air dominates the boat’s life cycle., Circular economy business models commonly target ways to close resource loops for a product or system. Life cycle assessment (LCA) can be used to assess if the actions also imply other environmental benefits. This report is one of two case studies and utilises a motorboat as a case (another report examines a smartphone). First, the linear product is assessed to determine hotspots in the life cycle. From these results, three circular business models targeting several circular solutions were chosen and assessed using LCA.

This report presents a life cycle assessment (LCA) case study of a mobile phone. The work is part of the POLICIA project where the overarching goal is to combine LCA and an economic-based model (POLICA CE model) into an integrated assessment. The aim of this model is to identify market failures and quantify policy effects of efficient combinations along the entire life cycle. The objective of the phone case study work is to enable the impact assessment of the LCA, to be incorporated into the POLICIA CE-model, so that environmental impacts of policies can be directly modelled and optimised. To achieve this, linear and circular variants of products were assessed to identify the components and life cycle stages that influence the environmental impact. The materials and part production stages of the life cycle contribute most to the environmental impact, for all studied impact categories. Specifically, it is the integrated circuit and other electronic components that contribute most. This is turn implies that circular business models aimed at prolonging life or decreasing use of these components can provide the largest impact reductions., Circular economy business models commonly target ways to close resource loops for a product or system. Life cycle assessment (LCA) can be used to assess if the actions also imply other environmental benefits. Using a mobile phone as a case study this report first assesses the linear product to determine hotspots in the life cycle. From these results, three circular business models targeting several circular component solutions were chosen and assessed using LCA.

En linjär ekonomi skapar ett resurs- och miljöproblem som på flera sätt skiljer sig från andra miljöproblem som är begränsade i sin rumsliga skala. En linjär ekonomi är ett samhälleligt problem eftersom den uppkommer på grund av flera externa effekter och andra marknadsmisslyckanden på marknader för till exempel råmaterial-utvinning, produktion, konsumtion, återvinning och återanvändning vilka påverkar varandra i en allmän jämvikt. Såväl praktiker som forskare har på senare år kommit med förslag på styrmedel för cirkulär ekonomi. Dock har styrmedelsanalyser, gjorda utifrån livscykelperspektiv och allmänna jämviktsförhållanden, hittills fått mindre uppmärksamhet i tillämpad forskningslitteratur. Projektet POLICIA tar detta som en utgångspunkt för att utveckla en integrerad ansats mellan cirkulärekonomiska (CE) modeller och livscykelanalys (LCA) som kan användas för att identifiera och analysera styrmedelskombinationer för att nå mål eller samhällsekonomiskt effektiva lösningar som innebär en övergång från linjära till cirkulära flöden. Projektet har gjort detta med en ny tvärvetenskaplig strategi inom styrmedelsforskning som kombinerar CE-modeller med LCA. Forskningen i POLICIA illustrerar vikten av att använda systemperspektiv med allmänna jämviktsmodeller och LCA för att styra mot cirkulära flöden. Resultaten visar att kombinationer av samverkande styrmedel är nödvändiga för att skapa förutsättningar för en övergång till en cirkulär ekonomi. Hur kan CE-LCA användas? För att nå mål som innebär en övergång från linjära till cirkulära flöden kommer ett flertal aktörer längs produkternas livscykler behöva förändra sina beteenden när det finns flera olika externa effekter samtidigt vilket ofta är fallet i en linjär ekonomi. Ofta påverkar aktörerna varandra på ett flertal marknader som är sammankopplade via flöden av produkter, material och energi. Ett styrmedel som riktas till en viss aktör kommer i allmänhet att påverka andra aktörers beteenden. Dessa effekter kan bli

This report presents a life cycle assessment (LCA) case study of a motorboat. The work is part of the POLICIA project where the overarching goal is to combine LCA and an economic-based model (POLICA CE model) into an integrated assessment. The aim of this model is to identify market failures and quantify policy effects of efficient combinations along the entire life cycle. The objective of the motorboat case study work is to enable the impact assessment of the LCA, to be incorporated into the POLICIA CE-model, so that environmental impacts of policies can be directly modelled and optimised. To achieve this, linear and circular variants of products were assessed to identify the key factors and life cycle stages that influence the environmental impact. It was found that the use phase dominated the linear version of the life cycle for all studied impact categories, due to the use of fossil fuels and anti-fouling paint. It is shown that circular business models aimed at boat electrification can provide the largest impact reductions. Whilst fossil fuels remain the primary source of boat propulsion, prolonging the boat’s life, or focussing on recycling of boat materials, will not provide a significant reduction in environmental impact. This is because the use phase and its associated pollution of water and air dominates the boat’s life cycle., Circular economy business models commonly target ways to close resource loops for a product or system. Life cycle assessment (LCA) can be used to assess if the actions also imply other environmental benefits. This report is one of two case studies and utilises a motorboat as a case (another report examines a smartphone). First, the linear product is assessed to determine hotspots in the life cycle. From these results, three circular business models targeting several circular solutions were chosen and assessed using LCA.

This report presents a life cycle assessment (LCA) case study of a mobile phone. The work is part of the POLICIA project where the overarching goal is to combine LCA and an economic-based model (POLICA CE model) into an integrated assessment. The aim of this model is to identify market failures and quantify policy effects of efficient combinations along the entire life cycle. The objective of the phone case study work is to enable the impact assessment of the LCA, to be incorporated into the POLICIA CE-model, so that environmental impacts of policies can be directly modelled and optimised. To achieve this, linear and circular variants of products were assessed to identify the components and life cycle stages that influence the environmental impact. The materials and part production stages of the life cycle contribute most to the environmental impact, for all studied impact categories. Specifically, it is the integrated circuit and other electronic components that contribute most. This is turn implies that circular business models aimed at prolonging life or decreasing use of these components can provide the largest impact reductions., Circular economy business models commonly target ways to close resource loops for a product or system. Life cycle assessment (LCA) can be used to assess if the actions also imply other environmental benefits. Using a mobile phone as a case study this report first assesses the linear product to determine hotspots in the life cycle. From these results, three circular business models targeting several circular component solutions were chosen and assessed using LCA.

Den snabba introduktionen av elfordon kommer att minska utsläppen från vägtrafik kraftigt. Men att bara byta drivsystem är inte tillräckligt. Det krävs också att aktörerna i olika delar av värdekedjan fokuserar mer på mänskliga rättigheter i gruvor och fabriker, klimatpåverkan från tillverkning och väljer material som utgår från en långsiktig tillgång till naturresurser och kritiska material. I denna rapport görs en genomgång av de olika hållbarhetsaspekter som behöver hanteras och hur olika aktörerna kan bidra till en hållbar elektromobilitet.

This report regards the fate of the lithium-ion batteries used in vehicles in the Nordic countries. There are only very few large vehicle batteries that are worn out today, but about approximately 40,000 from e-bikes which are very much smaller. Based on the life length of batteries in current electric cars, the current flows of new batteries (2015–2018) are the ones that will be available for recycling in 2025–2030. They are, however, quickly out-shadowed by the projected increase in number of car batteries on the market, growing from around 0.5 million units 2018 to 4 million units by 2030. The report presents scenarios of amounts of batteries used for second-use after the use in the cars and describes different options for recycling including research in the field., This study made for the Nordic Council of Ministers regards the current and future flows of used lithium-ion batteries in vehicles, thus how much that are currently collected, re-used and recycled in the Nordic countries and the trends for the future.

Den snabba introduktionen av elfordon kommer att minska utsläppen från vägtrafik kraftigt. Men att bara byta drivsystem är inte tillräckligt. Det krävs också att aktörerna i olika delar av värdekedjan fokuserar mer på mänskliga rättigheter i gruvor och fabriker, klimatpåverkan från tillverkning och väljer material som utgår från en långsiktig tillgång till naturresurser och kritiska material. I denna rapport görs en genomgång av de olika hållbarhetsaspekter som behöver hanteras och hur olika aktörerna kan bidra till en hållbar elektromobilitet.

This report regards the fate of the lithium-ion batteries used in vehicles in the Nordic countries. There are only very few large vehicle batteries that are worn out today, but about approximately 40,000 from e-bikes which are very much smaller. Based on the life length of batteries in current electric cars, the current flows of new batteries (2015–2018) are the ones that will be available for recycling in 2025–2030. They are, however, quickly out-shadowed by the projected increase in number of car batteries on the market, growing from around 0.5 million units 2018 to 4 million units by 2030. The report presents scenarios of amounts of batteries used for second-use after the use in the cars and describes different options for recycling including research in the field., This study made for the Nordic Council of Ministers regards the current and future flows of used lithium-ion batteries in vehicles, thus how much that are currently collected, re-used and recycled in the Nordic countries and the trends for the future.

The number of electric vehicles (cars, buses, e-bikes, electric scooters and electric motorcycles) sold in the Nordic countries is currently increasing quickly. That means that more electricity is used for driving, and also that more of some important metals are being used than earlier. This report regards the fate of the lithium-ion batteries used in vehicles in the Nordic countries. Currently the “Battery Directive” (EC, 2006) which is a producer’s responsibility directive, is under revision and this study is a knowledge base intended for use by the Nordic Environmental Protection Agencies for their referral response in the revision process. This report focuses on the aspect of metal resources, but it does not elaborate on a broader range of environmental impacts, as these were outside the scope of this study.

The number of electric vehicles (cars, buses, e-bikes, electric scooters and electric motorcycles) sold in the Nordic countries is currently increasing quickly. That means that more electricity is used for driving, and also that more of some important metals are being used than earlier. This report regards the fate of the lithium-ion batteries used in vehicles in the Nordic countries. Currently the “Battery Directive” (EC, 2006) which is a producer’s responsibility directive, is under revision and this study is a knowledge base intended for use by the Nordic Environmental Protection Agencies for their referral response in the revision process. This report focuses on the aspect of metal resources, but it does not elaborate on a broader range of environmental impacts, as these were outside the scope of this study.

The study consists of a review of available life cycle assessments on lithium-ion batteries for light-duty vehicles, and the results from the review are used to draw conclusions on how the production stage impacts the greenhouse gas emissions. The report also focuses on the emissions from each individual stage of the battery production, including; mining, material refining, refining to battery grade, and assembly of components and battery. The report is largely structured based on a number of questions. The questions are divided in two parts, one focusing on short-term questions and the second on more long-term questions. To sum up the results of this review of life cycle assessments of lithium-ion batteries we used the questions as base. Part 1 – Review the iteratively specified chemistries and answer the following short-term questions related to the battery production: How large are the energy use and greenhouse emissions related to the production of lithium-ion batteries? How large are the greenhouse gas emissions related to different production steps including mining, processing and assembly/manufacturing? What differences are there in greenhouse gas emissions between different production locations? Do emissions scale with the battery weight and kWh in a linear or non-linear fashion? Part 2 – To answer more long-term questions related to opportunities to reduce the energy use and greenhouse gas emissions from battery production. a) What opportunities exist to improve the emissions from the current lithium-ion battery chemistries by means of novel production methods? b) What demands are placed on vehicle recycling today? c) How many of the lithium-ion batteries are recycled today and in what way? d) What materials are economically and technically recoverable from the batteries today? e) What recycling techniques are being developed today and what potential do they have to reduce greenhouse gas emissions? f) How much of the prod, This report presents the findings from the Swedish Energy Agency and the Swedish Transport Administration commissioned study on the Life Cycle energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions from lithium-ion batteries. It does not include the use phase of the batteries. Den här rapporten finns endast på engelska.

The study consists of a review of available life cycle assessments on lithium-ion batteries for light-duty vehicles, and the results from the review are used to draw conclusions on how the production stage impacts the greenhouse gas emissions. The report also focuses on the emissions from each individual stage of the battery production, including; mining, material refining, refining to battery grade, and assembly of components and battery. The report is largely structured based on a number of questions. The questions are divided in two parts, one focusing on short-term questions and the second on more long-term questions. To sum up the results of this review of life cycle assessments of lithium-ion batteries we used the questions as base. Part 1 – Review the iteratively specified chemistries and answer the following short-term questions related to the battery production: How large are the energy use and greenhouse emissions related to the production of lithium-ion batteries? How large are the greenhouse gas emissions related to different production steps including mining, processing and assembly/manufacturing? What differences are there in greenhouse gas emissions between different production locations? Do emissions scale with the battery weight and kWh in a linear or non-linear fashion? Part 2 – To answer more long-term questions related to opportunities to reduce the energy use and greenhouse gas emissions from battery production. a) What opportunities exist to improve the emissions from the current lithium-ion battery chemistries by means of novel production methods? b) What demands are placed on vehicle recycling today? c) How many of the lithium-ion batteries are recycled today and in what way? d) What materials are economically and technically recoverable from the batteries today? e) What recycling techniques are being developed today and what potential do they have to reduce greenhouse gas emissions? f) How much of the prod, This report presents the findings from the Swedish Energy Agency and the Swedish Transport Administration commissioned study on the Life Cycle energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions from lithium-ion batteries. It does not include the use phase of the batteries. Den här rapporten finns endast på engelska.