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In this study, a 72-year-old man with Alzheimer’s disease and a Mini-Mental Status (MMS) score of 25 participated. The participant was presented for class-formation sorting tests and conditional-discrimination training sequences and tests with portraits of close family members, their names, and family relationships as stimuli. The purpose of the study was to identify intact relations between stimuli, stimulus control issues and thereafter reestablish relations between stimuli. In the sorting tests, intact and weakened stimulus relations were identified. In addition, the results showed how correct stimulus control was reestablished after tailoring the conditional-discrimination training after the participant had shown systematical incorrect responding to some of the presented stimuli.

Pervasive congruency effects characterize approximate number discrimination tasks. Performance is better on congruent (the more numerous stimulus consists of objects of larger size that occupy a larger area) than on incongruent (where the opposite holds) items. The congruency effects typically occur when controlling for nonnumeric variables such as cumulative area. Furthermore, only performance on incongruent stimuli seems to predict math abilities. Here, we present evidence for an attentional-bias induced by stimulus control (ABC) where preattentive features such as item size reflexively influence decisions, which can explain these congruency effects. In three experiments, we tested predictions derived from the ABC. In Experiment 1, as predicted, we found that manipulation of size introduced congruency effects and eliminated the correlation with math ability for congruent items. However, performance on incongruent items and neutral, nonmanipulated items were still predictive of math ability. A negative correlation between performance on congruent and incongruent items even indicated that they measure different underlying constructs. Experiment 2 demonstrated, in line with the ABC account, that increasing presentation time reduced congruency effects. By directly measuring overt attention using eye-tracking, Experiment 3 revealed that people direct their first gaze toward the array with items of larger individual size, biasing them towards these arrays. The ABC explains why the relation between performance on approximate number discrimination tasks and math achievement has been fragile and suggests that stimulus control manipulations have contaminated the results. We discuss the importance of using stimuli that are representative of the environment.

Pervasive congruency effects characterize approximate number discrimination tasks. Performance is better on congruent (the more numerous stimulus consists of objects of larger size that occupy a larger area) than on incongruent (where the opposite holds) items. The congruency effects typically occur when controlling for nonnumeric variables such as cumulative area. Furthermore, only performance on incongruent stimuli seems to predict math abilities. Here, we present evidence for an attentional-bias induced by stimulus control (ABC) where preattentive features such as item size reflexively influence decisions, which can explain these congruency effects. In three experiments, we tested predictions derived from the ABC. In Experiment 1, as predicted, we found that manipulation of size introduced congruency effects and eliminated the correlation with math ability for congruent items. However, performance on incongruent items and neutral, nonmanipulated items were still predictive of math ability. A negative correlation between performance on congruent and incongruent items even indicated that they measure different underlying constructs. Experiment 2 demonstrated, in line with the ABC account, that increasing presentation time reduced congruency effects. By directly measuring overt attention using eye-tracking, Experiment 3 revealed that people direct their first gaze toward the array with items of larger individual size, biasing them towards these arrays. The ABC explains why the relation between performance on approximate number discrimination tasks and math achievement has been fragile and suggests that stimulus control manipulations have contaminated the results. We discuss the importance of using stimuli that are representative of the environment.

Pervasive congruency effects characterize approximate number discrimination tasks. Performance is better on congruent (the more numerous stimulus consists of objects of larger size that occupy a larger area) than on incongruent (where the opposite holds) items. The congruency effects typically occur when controlling for nonnumeric variables such as cumulative area. Furthermore, only performance on incongruent stimuli seems to predict math abilities. Here, we present evidence for an attentional-bias induced by stimulus control (ABC) where preattentive features such as item size reflexively influence decisions, which can explain these congruency effects. In three experiments, we tested predictions derived from the ABC. In Experiment 1, as predicted, we found that manipulation of size introduced congruency effects and eliminated the correlation with math ability for congruent items. However, performance on incongruent items and neutral, nonmanipulated items were still predictive of math ability. A negative correlation between performance on congruent and incongruent items even indicated that they measure different underlying constructs. Experiment 2 demonstrated, in line with the ABC account, that increasing presentation time reduced congruency effects. By directly measuring overt attention using eye-tracking, Experiment 3 revealed that people direct their first gaze toward the array with items of larger individual size, biasing them towards these arrays. The ABC explains why the relation between performance on approximate number discrimination tasks and math achievement has been fragile and suggests that stimulus control manipulations have contaminated the results. We discuss the importance of using stimuli that are representative of the environment.

Pervasive congruency effects characterize approximate number discrimination tasks. Performance is better on congruent (the more numerous stimulus consists of objects of larger size that occupy a larger area) than on incongruent (where the opposite holds) items. The congruency effects typically occur when controlling for nonnumeric variables such as cumulative area. Furthermore, only performance on incongruent stimuli seems to predict math abilities. Here, we present evidence for an attentional-bias induced by stimulus control (ABC) where preattentive features such as item size reflexively influence decisions, which can explain these congruency effects. In three experiments, we tested predictions derived from the ABC. In Experiment 1, as predicted, we found that manipulation of size introduced congruency effects and eliminated the correlation with math ability for congruent items. However, performance on incongruent items and neutral, nonmanipulated items were still predictive of math ability. A negative correlation between performance on congruent and incongruent items even indicated that they measure different underlying constructs. Experiment 2 demonstrated, in line with the ABC account, that increasing presentation time reduced congruency effects. By directly measuring overt attention using eye-tracking, Experiment 3 revealed that people direct their first gaze toward the array with items of larger individual size, biasing them towards these arrays. The ABC explains why the relation between performance on approximate number discrimination tasks and math achievement has been fragile and suggests that stimulus control manipulations have contaminated the results. We discuss the importance of using stimuli that are representative of the environment.

Pervasive congruency effects characterize approximate number discrimination tasks. Performance is better on congruent (the more numerous stimulus consists of objects of larger size that occupy a larger area) than on incongruent (where the opposite holds) items. The congruency effects typically occur when controlling for nonnumeric variables such as cumulative area. Furthermore, only performance on incongruent stimuli seems to predict math abilities. Here, we present evidence for an attentional-bias induced by stimulus control (ABC) where preattentive features such as item size reflexively influence decisions, which can explain these congruency effects. In three experiments, we tested predictions derived from the ABC. In Experiment 1, as predicted, we found that manipulation of size introduced congruency effects and eliminated the correlation with math ability for congruent items. However, performance on incongruent items and neutral, nonmanipulated items were still predictive of math ability. A negative correlation between performance on congruent and incongruent items even indicated that they measure different underlying constructs. Experiment 2 demonstrated, in line with the ABC account, that increasing presentation time reduced congruency effects. By directly measuring overt attention using eye-tracking, Experiment 3 revealed that people direct their first gaze toward the array with items of larger individual size, biasing them towards these arrays. The ABC explains why the relation between performance on approximate number discrimination tasks and math achievement has been fragile and suggests that stimulus control manipulations have contaminated the results. We discuss the importance of using stimuli that are representative of the environment.

An essential part of foraging ecology is to understand the processes of detection, recognition and discriminationof prey, as well as the sensorial modalities involved. Often, predators do not rely on a single sensory system but on multipleinteracting senses. Specifically, lizards mainly use vision and vomerolfaction for prey pursuit. Here, we used an experimentalapproach to study how the Carpetan rock lizard,Iberolacerta cyreni, responds to different types of stimuli (chemical, visual,or both combined) from two prey species. The number of individuals approaching the prey and the number of attacks differedbetween treatments, however, we did not find differences in latency time, number of individuals attacking the prey or numberof tongue flicks. Our results suggested that visual cues combined with chemical stimuli enhanced detection of both preyspecies and that prey discrimination occurred posteriorly and independently of using any or both types of stimuli.

The study was aimed to evaluate the effects of varying the temporal location of a neutral stimulus on responding in a temporally defined schedule. A 60 s cycle was divided in two 30 s subcycle. A green light was presented during the first subcycle; whereas, a red light that changed its position at the (beginning, middle or end of subcycle) was presented. In the second subcycles the temporal position of the signal modified the response distribution; frequency of responding during the signal was higher when the signal was presented at the end of the subinterval and lower when it was introduced at the beginning. The results are discussed based on the stimulus functions related to the temporal proximity with the reinforcer, El estudio tuvo como propósito evaluar los efectos de variar la posición temporal de un estímulo neutro sobre la distribución del responder en un programa definido temporalmente. Se utilizó un ciclo temporal de 60 segundos, subdividido en dos subciclos de 30 segundos cada uno. El primer subciclo se correlacionó con una luz de color verde; mientras que en el segundo subciclo se presentó una luz de color rojo que varió su posición (al inicio, a la mitad o al final del subciclo). Se encontró que, la posición temporal de la señal modificó la distribución del responder, la frecuencia de respuestas durante la señal fue superior cuando se presentó al final del subintervalo y menor cuando se presentó al inicio. Los resultados se discuten con base en las funciones que desarrollan los estímulos por su proximidad temporal con el reforzador.

Though differential reinforcement, a discriminative stimulus (S D ) acquires two properties.  The operant contingency is responsible for the S D s response-discriminative property.  However, as stimulus control develops an S D also acquires incentive-motivational properties through its association with reinforcement changes.  A systematic series of experiments are described that breaks the usual co-variation of response and reinforcement rates in most discriminative operant situations.  In three groups, S D s (a tone and a light) occasioned steady moderate lever pressing in rats that ceased when neither S D was present.  Probably of reinforcement in these S D s, relative to when both were off, was systematically manipulated to make them incentive-motivationally excitatory, neutral or inhibitory.  In each S D , for the “excitatory” group reinforcement (food) probability increased from 0 to 100%, for the “neutral” group it was unchanged and for the “inhibitory” group it decreased from 100 to 0%.  Although behaviorally indistinguishable in training, a stimulus-compounding assay revealed that tone-plus-light tripled response rate in the incentive-excitatory group, doubled rate in the incentive-neutral group and didn’t increase rate in the incentive-inhibitory group – producing the instrumentally derived incentive-motivational function for the first time.  This is discussed context of two-process learning theory, a functional analysis of transfer-of-control research plus how the response-discriminative and incentive-motivational properties acquired by an S D contribute to the stimulus control of behavior.

Reeducation of sleep habits of a girl using behavioral techniques. Sleep disorders are considered one of the most common problems at early ages. The present study shows the case of a four years old girl with starting and maintenance sleep problems caused by a lack of appropriate sleep habits. This case was evaluated through observational records, a scale of educational styles and a sleep disturbance scale for children. The intervention was based on behavioral techniques for the rehabilitation of sleep habits and a hierarchy of gradual exposition. Parents acted as co-therapists. The adherence of the child to the ntervention was enhanced using a token economy. The results were positive reaching the therapeutic targets over a period of six weeks. It was succeeded in establishing the habit of sleeping alone and decreasing the frequency of nighttime awakenings. Indirectly, parents decreased the anxiety caused by the situation and the girl reduced coercitive behaviors. The follow-up assessment showed the maintenance and generalization of the therapy utcomes, Los trastornos del sueño son considerados uno de los problemas infantiles más frecuentes. En el presente estudio se muestra el caso de una niña de cuatro años con problemas de insomnio de inicio y mantenimiento provocado por una carencia de hábitos de sueño adecuados. La evaluación se realizó a través de registros observacionales, una prueba de estilos educativos y una escala de trastornos del sueño para niños. La intervención se basó en un tratamiento conductual en reeducación de los hábitos del sueño y una jerarquía de exposición gradual. Los padres actuaron como coterapeutas. La adherencia de la niña a la intervención se incentivó mediante una economía de fichas. Los resultados fueron positivos, alcanzando los objetivos en un periodo de seis semanas. Se adquirió el hábito de dormir sola y disminuyó la frecuencia de los despertares nocturnos. Indirectamente, se logró disminuir la ansiedad de los padres ante la situación y los comportamientos coercitivos de la niña. Tras la evaluación se comprobó el mantenimiento y la generalización de los efectos terapéuticos.

Though differential reinforcement, a discriminative stimulus (SD) acquires two properties. The operant contingency is responsible for the SDs response-discriminative property. However, as stimulus control develops an SD also acquires incentive-motivational properties through its association with reinforcement changes. A systematic series of experiments are described that breaks the usual co-variation of response and reinforcement rates in most discriminative operant situations. In three groups, SDs (a tone and a light) occasioned steady moderate lever pressing in rats that ceased when neither SD was present. Probably of reinforcement in these SDs, relative to when both were off, was systematically manipulated to make them incentive-motivationally excitatory, neutral or inhibitory. In each SD, for the “excitatory” group reinforcement (food) probability increased from 0 to 100%, for the “neutral” group it was unchanged and for the “inhibitory” group it decreased from 100 to 0%. Although behaviorally indistinguishable in training, a stimulus-compounding assay revealed that tone-plus-light tripled response rate in the incentive-excitatory group, doubled rate in the incentive-neutral group and didn’t increase rate in the incentive-inhibitory group – producing the instrumentally derived incentive-motivational function for the first time. This is discussed context of two-process learning theory, a functional analysis of transfer-of-control research plus how the response-discriminative and incentive-motivational properties acquired by an SD contribute to the stimulus control of behavior.

Kognitiv beteendeterapi för primär insomni är inte lika effektivt som KBT för annan problematik. Behandlingen har mest fokuserat på förändring av sömn och bortsett från andra faktorer som kan bidraga till problematiken. Denna studie syftade till att utvärdera effekten av att addera en intervention mot en ytterligare faktor, nämligen oro, till behandling. Studien hade en single subject-design med två betingelser, med och utan oroshantering, för- och eftermätning och sju deltagare. Resultaten tyder på att metoden konstruktiv oro tillförde bättre utfall på sömn, oro och daglig funktion. Slutsatsen är att fokus på fler faktorer än sömn, som oro och dagtidsfunktion, kan effektivisera KBT för primär insomni., Cognitive behavioral therapy for primary insomnia is not as effective as CBT for other problems. The treatment has primary focused on change of sleep and neglected other factors which can contribute to the problem. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of adding an intervention aimed at an additional factor, namely worry, to treatment. The study had a single subject design with two conditions, with and without constructive worry, pre- and posttest and seven participants. The results indicated that the intervention constructive worry added better outcomes on sleep, worry and daytime function. The conclusion that can be drawn is that a focus on more factors than sleep, such as worry and daytime function, can render CBT for primary insomnia more effective.

Kognitiv beteendeterapi för primär insomni är inte lika effektivt som KBT för annan problematik. Behandlingen har mest fokuserat på förändring av sömn och bortsett från andra faktorer som kan bidraga till problematiken. Denna studie syftade till att utvärdera effekten av att addera en intervention mot en ytterligare faktor, nämligen oro, till behandling. Studien hade en single subject-design med två betingelser, med och utan oroshantering, för- och eftermätning och sju deltagare. Resultaten tyder på att metoden konstruktiv oro tillförde bättre utfall på sömn, oro och daglig funktion. Slutsatsen är att fokus på fler faktorer än sömn, som oro och dagtidsfunktion, kan effektivisera KBT för primär insomni., Cognitive behavioral therapy for primary insomnia is not as effective as CBT for other problems. The treatment has primary focused on change of sleep and neglected other factors which can contribute to the problem. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of adding an intervention aimed at an additional factor, namely worry, to treatment. The study had a single subject design with two conditions, with and without constructive worry, pre- and posttest and seven participants. The results indicated that the intervention constructive worry added better outcomes on sleep, worry and daytime function. The conclusion that can be drawn is that a focus on more factors than sleep, such as worry and daytime function, can render CBT for primary insomnia more effective.

In this paper we introduce a behaviorist version on selfawareness, supported on the experimental analysis of behavior, the natural science of the behavior established by B. F. Skinner (1938). Although to Skinner, and other behaviorist authors, self-awareness is an special kind of verbal behavior (and exclusively human therefore), we argue that self-awareness would be understood as a more basic process: conditional selfdiscrimination, that is a type of stimulus control whose discriminative stimulus is an own feature of the individual (the own physical image, the own internal states, the own behavior, etc.) conditionally associated to arbitrary stimuli (verbal autoclitics, in the human case). The ability of conditional self-discrimination has been proved in other species, which suggest to us that self-awareness is a learned ability, more extended on the nature and the evolution., Introducimos en este artículo una versión conductista de la autoconsciencia, basada en el análisis experimental del comportamiento, la ciencia natural de la conducta de los organismos fundada por B. F. Skinner (1938). Aunque para Skinner, y para otros autores conductistas, la autoconsciencia es una forma especial de conducta verbal (y por tanto exclusivamente humana), planteamos que la autoconsciencia debe entenderse con un proceso más básico: la autodiscriminación condicional, que es un tipo de control de estímulos, en la cual el estímulo discriminativo es algún aspecto del mismo individuo (como su imagen física, sus estados internos, su propia conducta, etc.), asociado condicionalmente a estímulos arbitrarios (en el caso humano a las autoclíticas verbales). La capacidad de autodiscriminación condicional ha sido demostrada en otras especies, lo que nos sugiere que la autoconsciencia es una capacidad aprendida, más extendida a lo ancho de la naturaleza y a lo largo de la evolución.

During the last few years the efficacy of behaviour modification on the treatment of Anorexia Nervosa has been remarked too often. It has been wrongly assumed that the rectification of emaciation, the most notorious symptom, was the proper treatment for this complex and serious disorder. Published results lack a follow-up. To these patients, this treatment method brought a deterioration of their situation. Even if they achieved a transient increase of weight, behaviour modification has to be considered as potentially harmful to anorexia nervosa patients. This article presents information about harmful effects on patients treated with this method. Their stories illustrate how behaviour Mmodification methods are not only potentially but actually dangerous., En los últimos años se ha señalado, de forma excesiva, la eficacia de la modificación de conducta en el tratamiento de la anorexia nerviosa. Se ha supuesto, de forma errónea, que la imposición de una mejoría de la emaciación, el síntoma más llamativo, es un tratamiento adecuado para este trastorno tan grave y complejo. Los resultados que se han publicado adolecen de falta de seguimiento. En estos pacientes, este método de tratamientos les llevó a un empeoramiento de su estado. A pesar de conseguir un aumento de peso pasajero, la modificación de conducta debe considerarse como potencialmente dañina en la anorexia nerviosa. En este artículo se aporta información sobre los efectos perjudiciales de los pacientes tratados con este método. Sus historias ilustran que los métodos de modificación de conducta no son sólo peligrosos en potencia, sino en la realidad.